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Introduction
Relations between the US and the Middle East remained tense for a long time due to different policies, religions, and world views. Before the Civil War, the Middle East posed a severe security threat to the United States (Cleveland and Bunton 2018, 143). The foreign policy of the United States in the Middle East has its roots in the Barbary Wars of the 19th century (Madi-Sisman and Sisman, 2018, 13). The biggest problem was piracy, which prevented the young country from establishing a foreign trade. The short-term way out of this predicament was the appointment of American representatives to the eastern regencies (Oren 2008, chapter 13). Pirate activity declined, but Barbary pirates continued to demand tribute from American merchant ships in the Mediterranean. The United States was beginning to acquire naval potential, but using it against the strong East was inappropriate. Americas involvement in the Middle East has long been a matter of economic and military potential. However, many Americans were also fascinated by distant culture, romantic notions, and the newness of religion. This romantic attitude towards the East gave rise to many myths.
Faith and Religion
The Middle East has become for Americans not only a symbol of superiority in the region but also a mythical land full of rumors and superstitions. The East has become a collective term for a specific community of people fundamentally different from Americans and Europeans (Oren 2008, chapter 13). Eastern people were a priori perceived as hostile, uncivilized barbarians, bloodthirsty and cunning ones. The religious difference between Islam and Christianity played an essential role in shaping this attitude.
Much stronger than in terms of language and culture, the East differed from the West in religion. The Americans called the East peoples Muslims and perceived them as barbarians and uncivilized (Leo 2018, 708). Early America could boast of religious tolerance, but this did not apply to Islam, which was not perceived as a religion. In the organization of public life, as in foreign policy, the United States was guided by a strong Protestantism, along with the idea of the superiority of the United States (Oren 2008, chapter 14). Protestants called Islam a false and morally degenerate heresy. Initially protesting the solid economic threat of the Middle East, the United States began to reorient itself towards cultural, including religious confrontation. Religion has also become a sign of western exceptional superiority.
Differences between Faith and Fantasy
Religious beliefs can often be associated with myths, bigotry, and prejudice, without the possibility of drawing a precise line. This also applies to the ideas of Americans about the Middle East, supported by the difference in worldviews, religion, language, and cultures. The almost complete lack of knowledge about the Middle East provided the basis for spreading rumors and superstitions (Corbett 2021, 23). Americans perceived the Middle East not only as a hostile culture but also as a beautiful, magical land. The Bible, widely circulated and known to almost every American, became the primary source of Eastern myths (Oren 2008, chapter 13). The Old and New Testaments talked about the majestic desert and old temples, and many parishioners began to dream of seeing the miracles described with their own eyes.
The translated One Thousand and One Nights gained immense popularity among Americans. Such popularity is easily explained by the fact that the stories of Scheherazade brought a remarkable tale of adventure, treasure, and love into the hard life of Americans. If the Bible was a source of religious knowledge about the East, One Thousand and One Nights became the basis for the ideas about secular life (Oren 2008, chapter 13). The openness of the stories amazed religious people and formed the idea of Eastern people as passionate, frank, and wild. Descriptions of biblical miracles and revelations from Persian fairy tales formed the image of a fabulous land. The Middle East presented opportunities for movement and development, and the fairy-tale aura began attracting more adventurous Americans to this region.
Thus, the East began to represent not only a geopolitical interest for the Americans. It has become another way to develop and expand the boundaries of knowledge about the world. Fantasies and religion played an essential role in forming such an idea. The Bible became the source of religiousthoughts, but the Americans perceived information rather than the beliefs of Muslims but the beauties of the desert and miracles (Oren 2008, chapter 13). Fantasies were shaped under the influence of One Thousand and One Nights and the stories of brave Americans who dared to travel to an unknown land (Oren 2008, chapter 13). However, during this period of the historical development of the relationship between East and West, religion and faith were challenging to separate from fantasy and myth. The difference was only in the sources of prejudice, but all these trends had a common nature.
The meager information, the miracles described, and the aura of mystery served as the basis for the formation of incorrect prejudices about the Middle East for Protestants. In fact, the decline of the great eastern empires was strongly observed, and Americans in the Middle East faced not with wealth and miracles but famine and ruin. After seeing the roots of the idea of Western superiority, both religiously and culturally, it continued to grow.
US Geopolitical Interests in the Middle East Before 1900
One of the main obstacles to the development of American trade was piracy from the Middle East. After successfully repulsing the pirates, American trade finally became competitive and prosperous. The Americans rejoiced in their newfound strength and continued to build relations with the Middle East in a more positive direction. The Barbary Wars allowed the Americans to unite and further develop their foreign policy (Tucker 2018, 447). The geopolitical interest of the Americans in the Middle East was not only in trade but in expanding their influence (Oren 2008, chapter 14). The basis for these actions was the religious and social conviction of their exclusivity and the need to save other peoples from disbelief (Oren 2008, chapter 14). Faith became a tool for promoting American beliefs and ideals. Despite the seeming absurdity of the belief that the ancient peoples would perceive the Americans as saviors, this idea was indeed inspired by a large part of the population. The key to building support and understanding among believers in the Middle East should not be an aggressive military policy but peaceful persuasion (Gresh and Keskin 2018, 32). This strategy determined the nature of US foreign policy for many years.
Positive Consequences of American Failure to Evangelize Local Jews, Eastern Christians, and Muslims
The ideas of preachers from America were mainly aimed at orienting the Jews to their side; however, other peoples were also influenced. The goal of the preachers was not only for Jews but also for Muslims and Eastern Christians since the preachers believed in the need to unite nations to establish the kingdom of God (Oren 2008, chapter 13). Despite the conviction of the Americans in the correctness of their mission, the local people met the preachers with little enthusiasm (Oren 2008, chapter 14). The basis for organizing the thinking of the preachers was the desire to restore the scattered Jewish people in their rights and help them regain their former greatness (Oren 2008, chapter 14). However, the local Middle Eastern population did not share this desire and strove to move in line with their original culture and religion (Wilcox 2018, 15). Despite constant attempts, the missionaries converted only a small number of Eastern Christians, who were forced to accept the churchs charity due to poverty (Oren 2008, chapter 14). Moreover, in addition to passivity, the preachers met with active resistance. Despite all efforts and sincere faith, Christian expansion in the Middle East failed.
Despite the failure of the missionary strategy, the penetration of Americans to the East and mutual communication brought global results. The attempt at expansion led to the creation and strengthening of solid relations between the US and the Middle East (Oren 2008, chapter 15). The failure of attempts to convert to Christianity played a positive social and humanitarian role. First, the East could move along its unique path, retaining its originality. Secondly, the missionaries brought with them not only religious ideas but also new technologies and ideas (Oren 2008, chapter 15). The Americans managed to get to the most inaccessible regions, providing them with the knowledge that allowed them to begin civilized development. The regions peoples would typically welcome these visitors and attract them on multiple levels: commercial, educational, and strategic.
Relations with the Middle East and the choice of a peaceful strategy positively affected the United States.
The Americans have carefully chosen promoting strategic and spiritual interests. This choice formed the US reputation as a young nation, growing robust but friendly power (Oren 2008, chapter 15). For several decades, Americans have been denouncing the tenets of their faith, not only religious but also civil. The selflessness of the preachers was a consequence of the Americans belief in exceptionalism as executors of destiny and creators of democracy.
Conclusion
Religion, faith, and fantasy formed the basis of US-Middle East relations for years to come. The struggle of the missionaries made it possible to establish the role of the United States on the world stage and brought the blessings of civilization even to the remote eastern regions. Over time, more and more Americans became adherents of the idea of the exclusivity of the nation and the need to bring enlightenment to other peoples. The United States did not need to use its military potential to grow its authority; investment in medicine and education in the region played a more significant role. Although the United States did not have imperial ambitions in the Middle East, its experience became a model for expanding American hegemony abroad.
References
Cleveland, W. L., and Bunton, M. 2018. A History of the Modern Middle East. United Kingdom: Routledge.
Corbett, E. 2021. Holy Land Core and Periphery. In Competitive Archaeology in Jordan (pp. 20-48). University of Texas Press.
Gresh, G. F., & Keskin, T. (Eds.). (2018). US Foreign Policy in the Middle East: From American Missionaries to the Islamic State. United Kingdom: Routledge.
Leo, R. A. 2018. North American perceptions of Islam in the 18th century (freed from European influences). In Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History. Volume 12 Asia, Africa and the Americas (1700-1800) (pp. 707-723). Brill.
Madi-Sisman, O., and Sisman, C. 2018. From heathen Turks to cruel Turks : Religious and political roots of the changing American perception towards the Middle East. In US Foreign Policy in the Middle East (pp. 11-27). Routledge.
Oren, Michael B. 2008. Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East: 1776 to the Present. W. W. Norton.
Tucker, G. 2018. Dawn Like Thunder: The Barbary Wars and the Birth of the US Navy. Lulu.com.
Wilcox, A. 2018. Orientalism and Imperialism: From Nineteenth-century Missionary Imaginings to the Contemporary Middle East. Bloomsbury Publishing.
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