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Hepatitis A
The etiology of hepatitis A includes poor sanitation, male homosexuality, parental drug use, foreign travel, and household contact. The symptoms include nausea, vomiting, jaundice, malaise, dark urine, and anorexia (Gilroy, 2019). Treatment is mainly supportive, and there is no specific antiviral treatment. Nausea and vomiting are managed with antiemetics and dehydration through intravenous fluids. Liver transplantation should be considered for fulminant hepatic failure (Gilroy, 2019). Prevention includes control of the source, postexposure prophylaxis, immunization, and patient education.
Hepatitis B
The etiology of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) includes sexual contact, needle accidents, organ transfusions, and organ transplantation. Symptoms include anorexia, malaise, fatigue, right upper quadrant pain, fever, dark urine, and pale stool. Treatment is mainly supportive; there is no specific antiviral therapy. Pegylated interferon alfa, tenofovir, and disoproxil fumarate are first-line pharmacologic agents for acute HBV. Pegylated interferon (PEG-IFN), entecavir, tenofovir dipovoxil fumarate, and tenofovir alafenamide are effective for chronic HBV (Gilroy, 2019). Orthotopic liver transplantation is available for patients with hepatitic failure. Vaccination is the primary disease prevention strategy for both adults and children.
Hepatitis C
Hepatitis C viruses (HCV) etiology includes injecting illicit drugs, blood transfusion, needle-stick injuries, sexual transmission, acupuncture, razor sharing, and tattooing. Signs and symptoms include anorexia, malaise, and fatigue; although 80% of patients are asymptomatic and lack jaundice (Gilroy, 2019). The use of antiviral agents, such as interferons and PEG-IFN, direct-acting antiviral agents, and interferons and ribavirin, is available. There are no vaccinations for HCC; therefore, abstinence and screening are key disease prevention measures.
Hepatitis D
Hepatitis D virus (HDV) appears as a co-infection of HBV and has similar transmission modes and clinical presentations. PEG-IFNs are the only effective available treatments for HDV. Immunization against HBV can also act as a preventive measure against HDV. The hepatitis E viruss (HEV) primary mode of transmission is through fecal matter. Symptoms include myalgia, fever, arthralgia, right upper quadrant pain, weight loss, and nausea/vomiting. Treatment is mainly supportive; organ transplants are available for patients with chronic HEV. PEG-IFN is effective, but it is associated with adverse effects. There are no vaccinations or immunoglobins against HEV. Prevention includes safe practices, such as proper sanitation and access to clean drinking water.
References
Arora, P. (2020). Chronic kidney disease treatment & management. Medscape. Web.
Batuman, V., Schmidt, R. J., & Soman, S. S. (2019). Diabetic nephropathy: Practice essentials, pathophysiology, & etiology. Medscape. Web.
Gilroy, R. K. (2019). Hepatitis A treatment & management: Approach considerations, supportive care, liver transplantation. Medscape. Web.
Jones, M. W., Genova, R., & ORourke, M. C. (2019). Acute cholecystitis. StatPearls Publishing. Web.
Workeneh, B. T. (2019). Acute kidney injury: Practice essentials, background, & pathophysiology. Medscape. Web.
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