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Introduction
Darfur is an unstable region in Southern Sudan with a rich history of armed conflicts. It barely knew any peace until very recently, and its population, namely ethnic Darfuri, kept suffering. The reasons for the regions constant state of war are complicated, rooted in racism, environmental situation, and overall intolerance. The consequences of Darfurs ethnic cleansing have been devastating, affecting all spheres of life and the environment. The international community attempted to intervene and stop the violence, but it was not always successful. This paper will discuss the origin of the Darfur genocide, its effects on the region, and the attempts to resolve it.
The discussion around what caused the atrocities in Darfur remains open, and it is directly connected with the recent war. For instance, Akasha (2013) argues that climate change is the underlying reason, causing droughts and land degradation. The people living in the areas particularly affected by those phenomena wished to more auspicious regions, but their tribal population was against newcomers, which triggered the war and subsequent genocide (Akasha, 2013). The United Nations (UN) representatives and a group of researchers also maintain that point of view and believe that other assumed reasons, such as ethnic tension, result from it (Etefa, 2019). Flint and de Waal (2008) propose the ethnic-political model of the genocides origin and imply deep historical roots. Meanwhile, Etefa (2019) rejects climate change and ethnic tension as the causes and emphasizes the governments role in inciting violence. Moreover, Etefa (2019) denies that Darfurs situation is unique and considers it typical for post-colonial Africa. Conversely, Hagan and Rymond-Richmond (2008) insist on the conflicts racial origin, which explains its genocidal nature. Overall, it is hard to identify the primary cause, but all three suggested reasons contributed to the genocide.
Main body
No matter the reason, Darfur began its recent descent into the warring state and chaos more than a decade ago. The genocides beginning is generally linked with the time when the war in the region started (Flint & de Waal, 2008). Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) made itself known in February of 2003 and attacked several military objects, which is considered by some as the wars starting point (Flint & de Waal, 2008). However, it took some for Sudanese armed forces, majorly responsible for perpetrating the genocide, to become actively involved in the conflict, and it was one-sided for a while (Flint & de Waal, 2008). However, the region was hardly peaceful before the war, so the escalation, while devastating, was not particularly surprising (Etefa, 2019). Thus, a very tragic event engulfed Darfur, and its consequences are hard to understate.
The social effects of Darfurs genocide are pronounced as far as the demographics are concerned. The male population suffered many deaths in various violent ways or underwent emasculation, rendering men and boys impotent physically or psychologically (Ferrales et al., 2016). Meanwhile, the female one was subject to sexual violence regardless of age, and pregnant women had their fetuses forcibly removed in the process of sex-selective killing (Kaiser & Hagan, 2015). The peak of genocide coincided with the first year of the war, but it continued beyond that period (Natsios, 2012). Thus, many population groups felt persecuted and unsafe, and some might have escaped abroad, becoming refugees in such countries as Chad (Hagan & Rymond-Richmond, 2008). Eventually, the governments action against Darfur could have been one of the reasons for the Sudanese Revolution which ousted al-Bashir, who was responsible for many war crimes. Thus, the social impact of the Darfur genocide is vast, altering the countrys demographical landscape and causing other changes in the country.
Although climate change is believed to be one of the genocides causes, its effects did not stop; instead, it incited the conflict, and the environment suffered from both as a result. De Juan (2015) discovers a direct link between environmental changes and violence during the critical period of the Darfur war, associated with the genocides peak. The areas affected by long-term climate change the most were exceptionally violent (De Juan, 2015). The fact that farmers fled their villages due to the threat of being killed or looted also contributed to environmental degradation in the region (Khan, 2015). Thus, the vicious cycle representing the relationship between climate change and violence continues to sustain itself and further damage the environment.
Another consequence of the genocide closely related to environmental changes is the countrys economics. As Darfur is mostly agriculture-based, it suffered great losses with land degradation and water shortage before the recent conflict began (Akasha, 2013). However, the war made the impoverished region even less economically viable, and the government had no inclination to support Darfurs declined economy (Khan, 2015). People who lost their occupation could have joined SLA or other rebel organizations in hopes of making the difference or merely surviving (Etefa, 2019). Some allied with the state forces and participated in the genocide for receiving benefits (Etefa, 2019). The genocide also had a significant impact on the populations consumption abilities, as the people either died, became refugees, or joined one of the militant sides (Etefa, 2019). Overall, the economic effects associated with the violence perpetrated in Darfur are strongly linked with the social and environmental consequences, and only by adopting a multifaceted approach to tackle them, the region can heal.
Darfurs situation has attracted considerable international attention almost since the onset, but the organizations have been powerless in stopping the conflict and the associated genocide. For instance, the UN became concerned about Darfur in 2004, a year after the war began, and the peak of violence had already occurred (Akasha, 2013). The international organization has passed many resolutions regarding the matter, asking the Janjaweed, active participants in the genocide, to disarm and face justice (Akasha, 2013). However, Sudan continuously ignored them, and the sanctions against the government and select politicians were insufficient to produce the desired outcome (Akasha, 2013). Eventually, the matter was transferred to the International Criminal Court (ICC), whose activity was initially obstructed by the perpetrating country (Akasha, 2013). In 2009, the organization made a historic move of issuing several arrest warrants for al-Bashir, Sudans long-serving President, but none were acknowledged (Verhoeven et al., 2015). The matter was further aggravated by the African Unions (AU) refusal to support it and cooperate with ICC, and it became harder for humanitarian organizations to work in Sudan (Akasha, 2013). Overall, the UNs efforts to stop the genocide were mostly unsuccessful.
Another organization with significant involvement in Sudans situation was the AU. It also started acting in 2004 and established the African Mission in Sudan (AMIS), whose mission was mostly to observe without the right to intervene (Akasha, 2013). However, the strategy failed to achieve a resolution, and the organizations role in stopping the genocide was minimal (Akasha, 2013). Later, it joined forces with the UN, which allowed them to make more progress than they could independently, brokering peace agreements for smaller rebel groups, but they could not address the conflicts causes (Akasha, 2013). Thus, another organization was unsuccessful in stopping the violence in Darfur.
The external organizations failure to intervene and prevent the genocide demonstrates that the fault was ultimately with the government, and progress cannot be made without its involvement. Under al-Bashir, Sudan hardly adhered to democratic principles, and it openly mobilized ethnic or religious groups for political gains, leading to the genocide (Etefa, 2019). On the other hand, democratization and being inclusive could help address the issue and stop the violence (Etefa, 2019). However, if the country is unable to promote changes and continues to commit atrocities against the population, then the international community has a responsibility to protect the people (Verhoeven et al., 2015). The previous attempts might have failed, but it does not mean that they should have stopped, as the killing continued (Verhoeven et al., 2015). The recent events in Sudan show that the matter is likely to be resolved internally, as the rest of the population did not endorse the genocide. Perhaps, with further democratization, the conflict will stop, and the perpetrators will finally face prosecution.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Darfur genocide is one of the most blatant human rights violations of recent times, caused by various reasons, including climate change, ethnic tension, and inhumane policies. The consequences have been devastating, affecting the demographics for years to come, destroying the regions already weakened economy, and further deteriorating the environment. The attempts to intervene by the UN and the AU were late and largely unsuccessful, and the genocide continued. However, the Sudanese revolution and al-Bashirs imprisonment give hope that the conflict can be resolved, and the new government will adopt the necessary democratic principles to address the atrocities instead of turning a blind eye.
References
Akasha, M. O. (2013). Darfur: A tragedy of climate change. Anchor Academic Publishing.
De Juan, A. (2015). Long-term environmental change and geographical patterns of violence in Darfur, 20032005. Political Geography, 45, 2233.
Etefa, E. (2019). The origins of ethnic conflict in Africa: Politics and violence in Darfur, Oromia, and the Tana Delta. Palgrave Macmillan.
Ferrales, G., Nyseth Brehm, H., & Mcelrath, S. (2016). Gender-based violence against men and boys in Darfur. Gender & Society, 30(4), 565589.
Flint, J., & de Waal, A. (2008). Darfur: A new history of a long war (2nd ed.). Zed Books.
Hagan, J., & Rymond-Richmond, W. (2008). Darfur and the crime of genocide. Cambridge University Press.
Kaiser, J., & Hagan, J. (2015). Gendered genocide: The socially destructive process of genocidal rape, killing, and displacement in Darfur. Law & Society Review, 49(1), 69107.
Khan, M. (2015). The hidden puppeteer: Environmental degradation and the Darfur conflict. Harvard International Review, 36(4), 12-14. Web.
Natsios, A. S. (2012). Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur: What everyone needs to know. Oxford University Press.
Verhoeven, H., de Oliveira, R. S., & Jaganathan, M. M. (2015). To intervene in Darfur, or not: Re-examining the R2P debate and its impact. Global Society, 30(1), 2137.
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