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Globalization essentially aims at expansion of the economic status of communities usually at the expense of the cultural, social, and religious beliefs of a given community. It promotes the expansion of capitalistic ideologies whereby, the most resourceful succeed economically and socially, while removing religion from all spheres of human life. From this perspective, Islam can be viewed as counter-globalization as it promotes the development of a more spiritual society with similar social, religious, and economic ideologies (Al-Azmeh 1993, p.122). Globalization, in Islamic context, is an alternative to the Western globalization, which promotes economic and technological developments particularly in health and communication with little regard to religion (Salamandra 2002, p.203). Globally, Islam constitutes the second populous religion with diverse cultural and socioeconomic classes. Although new communication and information technology has promoted the dissemination of Islamic teachings, globalization, in the Islamic context has had negative impacts on the articulation of a unified Muslim identity.
Globalization and Islam Identity
Globalization manifests in different ways and it can be understood through economic, political, and cultural perspectives. These different articulations of globalization have led to emergence of various manifestations of Islamic identities in many parts of the world including the Middle East region, North Africa and South Asia (Armbrust 2003, p.67). In particular, cultural globalization that is often blamed on western cultural influence, has affected the values, traditions and the sense of identity among the Islam in the world. Assimilation of Islam into the Western culture in the wake of cultural globalization has affected the articulation of a global Muslim identity (Al-Azmeh & Fokas 2007, p.65). Modern technology in transport and communication has promoted the interaction between Muslims all round the world in the areas of education, trade, commerce, and welfare programs that help articulate Muslim identity.
One of the main factors that drive globalization in the new world has indeed been the communication and technology, which has promoted the development of an Islamic network across the world. Information and communication technology particularly the internet has turned the world into a global village by allowing people with different social and cultural backgrounds to interact freely (Al-Rasheed 2005, p.54). In this regard, the information technology has influenced Islam by reducing national sovereignty and distance between Muslims living in different parts of the world. The Islamic identity, in accordance to the Umma doctrine, is founded on nationhood and unity, which defies ethnic, gender, racial, and national boundaries. The Umma doctrine seeks to address the global challenges particularly the environmental problems by requiring that people associate as communities and take moral responsibility to the ecological problems facing the Earth (Achcar 2008, p.18). Equity and justice are the fundamental factors in achieving the Umma community. This implies that, Umma community has a commitment to reduce poverty among the people in various parts of the world. In addition, trades as well as new methods of transaction and financing are also given a priority under the Umma doctrine.
The doctrine of Umma achieved some success in promoting nationhood and reviving national consciousness with printed word. In contrast, the new communication technology has contributed to the disappearance of the idea of national sovereignty as the Umma teachings intended. In addition, the technology and communication has played a vital role in the creation of trans-ethnic communities whereby, national boundaries and national sovereignty, the barriers of establishing a unified community, are eliminated (Achcar 2008, p.22). The modern technology has enabled Islam to realize the Umma doctrine by spreading its teachings thus achieving a universal community in the wake of globalization. Information technology has also led to reduction in distance allowing Muslims all over the world to interact.
Islam as a religion celebrates movement to holy places, where the Muslim faithful gather to celebrate special occasions according to the Islamic calendar. The holy city of Mecca receives millions of faithful, who visit to communicate with God. Through communication technology, millions of Muslims are able to celebrate the rise and disappearance of the full moon that marks the end of fasting (Salamandra 2002, p.211). In earlier days prior to the advent of globalization, Muslims participated in annual pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca. However, satellite television and the internet are playing a major role in the acceleration of globalization in the Muslim world. All Muslims around the world can witness globalization involving the satellite television events including the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. There are many private satellite television channels dedicated to the spread of Islam teachings (Poole & Richardson 2006, p.62). The development of telephone technology has allowed millions of Muslims around the world to interact virtually for either social or business purposes. The Muslim faithful are able to communicate with families who could be living in different parts of the world and can keep in touch regarding their pilgrimage.
While globalization involving the use of the new technologies has had negative consequences in the Muslim world, it has promoted the penetration of Islam into the Western civilization (Haddad 2002, p.112). The Western consumer culture has been exported to Muslim nations using information technologies influencing the moral and social aspects of the Muslim world. Consequently, globalization involving the use of new information technology is perceived as a way of introducing Western values and ideas including unacceptable moral standards into the Muslim youth. However, globalization has also contributed to the spread of Muslim to other nations through international relationships. According to Salamandra, globalization has promoted the flows of people, images and wealth internationally (Salamandra 2002, p.287). The cooperation between Arab Gulf and London contributed to the spread of Gulf Arab local culture and heritage.
The Muslim interaction with foreign culture has also been promoted with the use of new technologies. Prior to globalization, the level of interaction involving Muslims who had migrated to the West was limited. According to Ansari, the interaction of Muslim with the British state differed in respect to areas of work, education, family, and friendships (Ansari 2004, p.102). The first generation of the Muslim migrants to Britain never made much demands to the state as they intended to return to their Muslim country of origin. This led to isolation of the migrant Muslim community, who in turn created strong ties with their family and community members in their home countries through use of communication technologies.
It is evident that globalization involving the use of information technologies has promoted the spread of Islam in accordance with the Muslim teachings of the Umma community. With the help of the internet, Muslims are able to form trans-ethnic communities that associate in social and cultural aspects of Muslim life, which helps to articulate the Muslim identity (Al-Azmeh & Fokas 2007, p.81). However, the Western influences often associated with globalization make the adoption of globalization to be limited in the Muslim world.
The Muslim presence in Britain spans over 300 years with majority of the migrants originating from Yemen. The earlier Yemen settlers continued to practice their religious and cultural beliefs including marriage within Britain. During World War II, many seamen mainly from South Asia were recruited to fight in Britain but remained after the war (Lewis 2002, p.26). The mass migration of British Muslims occurred between 1950 and 1970, with the majority of the migrants being Muslims from South Asia. During the same period, other Muslims from Middle East and North Africa also migrated into Britain with the Somali, Iranian, and Arab communities settling in Britain later (Al-Rasheed 2005, p.113). The majority of the Muslim migrants took manual jobs during the industrial revolution of Britain particularly in the cities of London and the textile towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire. Religious practices and observances including Friday prayers and cultural practices were common among the migrant Muslim community. The migrant Muslim community retained their Muslim identity despite the negative social and moral challenges they faced in the new society.
Many of the migrant Muslims intended to return to their home countries after raising sufficient funds in Britain. However, the majority remained in the UK and even brought their families to UK from their home countries such as Bangladesh marking the beginning of Islam as a religion in Britain. The Muslims then began conducting religious teaching to their children in a neighborhood dominated with the non-Muslim residents (Eade1989, p.114). As a result, they faced negative responses affecting the expansion of Islam. However, despite the unreceptive atmosphere, Islam continued to expand in Britain with the establishment of a Mosque in Bradford in 1959 (McLoughlin 2001, p.1049). Currently, the British Muslims are citizens of the UK and form part of the larger worldwide Umma community. In addition, British Muslims form national and international alliances with other Muslim faithful around the world. However, in the UK, the Muslim community togetherness raises concerns over security and the potential threat of terrorism in Britain. The British Muslims are accepted as citizens by the British government, which at the same time creates policies that regulate transnational Muslim communities.
In his book, The Infidel Within: Muslims in Britain since 1800, Ansari outlines the Muslim migration, intermarriage and the conversion of the local people to Islam. The author raises the question of a single Muslim identity even in the wake of the acceptance of British Muslims as citizens. The poor immigrant seamen from Muslim countries contributed to the development of the British Muslim heritage (Ansari 2004, p.118). The author also describes the history of Muslim migration and the problems they experienced from the host community who were not receptive of the Islamic doctrines into their lives. In addition, there were negative perceptions of Islam by the British, with the earlier converts who spread the teachings according to their own perceptions (Gilliat-Ray 2010, p.128). Socio-cultural scholars agree that no understanding of a particular religious community can occur without prior understanding of the cultural, ethnic, and racial factors that interact to enhance the religion. The migratory channels of the various Muslim communities go back to Britain. Ansari discusses how race and gender influenced Muslim identity among Muslim communities (2004, p.121). The interracial marriages involving Muslim men and indigenous English women affected Muslim identity during and after World War II. In addition, the interracial associations were promoted by the increase in economic status of the migrant Muslim community. Majority of the Muslim men took military tasks during the world war and as a result acquired economic stability, which allowed them to acquire social acceptance of the local community (Gilliat-Ray 2010, p.131). However, after the war, the indigenous British community reacted to discourage the white women from marrying black or non-English men for fear that, the non-British men would no longer be subordinate to British men.
With the rise in international terrorism, the distinction of the British Muslims from the indigenous community has become apparent (Lewis 2002, p.124). Although the British Muslims have made great achievements in various aspects of their lives, including education, improvement in the standards of living and have increased their participation in the British national issues, the increase in the international terrorism has revived the discrimination and marginalization of the British Muslims. Ansari notes that some British Muslim minority subscribe to jihadist believes because of marginalization in Britain (2004, p.143). The young generation of British Muslims, however, is more informed of its rights as British citizens and it avoids being discriminated upon unlike the elder generation, which has to endure discrimination. The elder generation has to find ways to survive in the increasingly discriminatory environment. Ansari concludes by noting that the modern generation of British Muslims can accept a hybrid Islamic identity, with some Western ideologies more acceptable.
While the acceptance of the British Muslims by the indigenous British community is limited due to the rise in international terrorism, the young generation would be able to overcome these obstacles and integrate well in the British society. This indicates that, the majority of the white British citizens still are not receptive of the British Muslims as UK citizens hence continue to discriminate against them.
Many studies fail to address the conditions of Muslims in Europe, which has resulted into conflicting policies regarding the Muslim identity in Britain. Al-Azmeh and Fokas argue that, cultural differentiation and identity of the Muslims are the causes of tensions between Muslims and the other European societies (Al-Azmeh, & Fokas 2007 p.84). Unlike Ansari, who attributes the lack of integration of the British Muslims to the perceived security threats by the indigenous communities, the study by the two authors concludes that the apparent tensions do not arise from the culture or religious practices of the British Muslims. Christians and Muslims in Europe hold divergent views of striving for uniformity rather than integration, which fuels the tensions. The European Muslims face challenges when it comes to cultural and religious practices and in establishing their identity, which complicates the integration of the immigrant Muslims into the larger European community (Al-Azmeh, & Fokas 2007, p 76). In conclusion, cultural and ethnic integration of the Muslims would promote their acceptance as citizens and remove the immigrant and security threat perceptions held by the host communities.
Globalization coupled with migration from Islamic countries has contributed to the expansion of Islam in the Western world. However, majority of the people in the Western countries hold negative perceptions regarding Islam mainly due to ignorance and the media. Most often, the media reports are incorrect further contributing to the growing hatred of Islam by the citizens of the Western countries (Awan 2007, p.254). The media portrays Islam as an extremist or terrorist religion that is anti-Western affecting the integration of Islam into the Western culture. Stereotypes spread by the Western media make the West identify Islam as an enemy (Eickelman & Anderson 1999, p.45). The radical Islam , is a common stereotype spread by the media often associated with terrorist tendencies. The news reporters develop a different image about Islam, which the West adopts.
The main factor that contributes to the stereotyping of Islam in the Western countries is the media. The choice of words used when referring to Muslims such as extremist or terrorist are often misleading to the people (Said 1981, p.56). In addition, the media portrays Muslims as fundamentalists who are opposed to the Western culture and religion. The Western media is very influential to the Western culture and way of life and thus the negative stereotypes regarding Islam are popular. The interpretation of the Islamic doctrines by the Western media is often erroneous like the use of the term fundamentalist to refer to extremism (Awan 2007, p.261). A fundamentalist in the actual sense refers to Muslims who follow their religion and the fundamental Islam beliefs including pilgrimage to Mecca. However, the media reports refer to Islamic fundamentalists as extremists showing that the media is ignorant of the meaning of Islamic fundamentalism . The misconceptions regarding Islamic religious practices that are spread by the media further affect how the citizens perceive Islam.
Another misconception regarding Islamic practices is about the Jihad or holy war doctrines of Islam. The media portrays the jihadists doctrines as war and violence to other religions. The Jihad is portrayed as the justification of Islams inclination to war and terror (Said 1981, p.29). However, the Islam teachings do not advocate for killing of innocent people and jihad refers to the struggle in accordance with Gods demands. It refers to the many things that a Muslim can do for the sake of God. Instead, the media interprets jihad to mean killing of the non-believers by the Muslims, which is wrong. In addition, Islam is historically associated with violence and killing by the media. The Western media spreads the misconception that Islam is a religion spread by the sword, which means that Muslims forced non-believers to convert to Islam (Awan 2007, p.264). In fact, Islam was spread by teachings and by some holy wars but not through use of force.
The media reports on politics of the Arab world are often associated with Islam. The reports on the political events in these Arab nations take a religious dimension when reported by the Western media. In addition, the events of the Arab world and the Middle East are often linked to Islam and Muslims. However, Arabs constitute 18%, which is a minority of the Muslim population across the world (Said 1981, p.33). The media, being a profit-making organization, creates false images about Islam to gain support and coverage among the public in the United States. Even though the negative images might not be in accordance with Islamic teachings, the media continues to propagate the negative images, which influence the views of the public about Islam. Poor translations of the Arabic language lead to misrepresentation of Islam by the media (Poole & Richardson 2006, p.96). In addition, developed news agencies that can ensure unbiased and reliable news reports and reporters who understand the Islamic culture are lacking in the Muslim world leading to poor representations by the Western reporters and media.
The representation of Islam particularly with regard to Islamic conflicts is poor among the Western nations in terms of the press and the media. There are only a few international media agencies in the Muslim world leaving the foreign media agencies to broadcast news to the Western audiences (Poole & Richardson 2006, p.92). The reporters from these media agencies are inexperienced and do not understand the local language and cultures leading to biased representation of the political and social events happening in the Muslim countries. The Western public becomes misinformed through television news, magazines, radios, and editorial cartoon strips in popular newspapers, which influence the public perception about Islam.
The Western media also represents Islam as being male-dominated society with less regard to the rights of women. Popular topics in the Western media include women dressing in the Islamic culture, which implies that Islam women are not free (Mernissi 1987, p.213). In addition, Islam is portrayed as a male dominant religion, which discriminates women and denies them of their fundamental rights. However, the traditional roles of Islam women were replaced with new roles that granted them rights to education and socio-economic freedom allowing the women to progress. Another contentious issue propagated by the Western media regards the mode of dress of Islamic women; the media portrays the wearing of the veil as a harsh treatment to women denying them freedom (Said 1981, p.39). However, the veils promote chastity and moralities among Muslim women and besides, the women have the choice to wear the veils or not. In most Western countries, the perception created about the system of governance in the Islam world is that there is no clear separation of the state and religion. In this respect, the Western governments oppose any radical political movement on the basis that it has Islamic inclinations. However, the movements could be political, advocating for expanded political and social freedoms.
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