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Introduction
Violent crime has become a major part of the crime world. Sexual crimes, terrorism and hooliganism are just some of the violent crimes. Violent acts cause 1.43 million deaths in the world (Siever, 2008). The majority of occasions of violence are due to aggression. Aggression and violence in schools is showing a decrease though media highlights the few that occur (Christle et al, 2001). Youth violence and aggression is considered a significant problem for which preventive measures are the solution.
Biological basis of violence
When acts of violence are repeatedly committed, an underlying neurobiological reason will be found; the control systems in the pre-frontal cortex cause the aggression provoked by anger stimuli (Siever, 2008). The imbalance between the control and the responsivity of the amygdala and the limbic regions of the brain produce the aggression. The insufficiency of circulating serotonin, the excess of catecholamines, the imbalance in the glutamate and the GABA systems and pathology in the neuropepetides could contribute to the abnormal and violent behaviour (Siever, 2008). Administration of drug therapy with mood stabilizers would reduce the limbic irritability and SSRIs would inhibit the serotonin reuptake.
Aetiology of sexual assault
The theory of evolutionary psychology speaks of the males as aggressive, hasty, fickle and undiscriminating (Dupre, 2001). The females are expected to be coy and remain aloof till they meet with males having the best genes and whom they want to cohabit with. This biologic principle is faithfully followed by the human beings. Great diversity is exhibited by animals when selecting a mate. The male has an express desire to propagate his species till death and inject the females. He may even kill to achieve his aim (Dupre, 2001). Other researchers have spoken of many theories: Sexual Assault and Male Dominance, Sexual Assault and Cultural Norms, Sexual Assault and the Media and Biological Theories of Sexual Assault (Theories of Sexual Assault, Human Rights).
The rational choice theory, which is as imperialistic as the evolutionary postulates that Man would select that action which is most contributory to his goals of propagation (Dupre, 2001). Economics is one field which uses this theory. All aspects of behavior can be studied using the theory. Rational choice theorists prefer not to mention how they achieve their goals. Evolutionary psychologists have many suggestions for assessing outcomes but they never mention any psychological mechanisms for generating behavior. Therefore the revolutionary psychology and rational choice theories are treated as complementary. What people want is managed by the evolutionary psychology and how they attempt to achieve their wants is through the rational choice theory (Dupre, 2001). A fruitful perspective is provided by the rational choice theory.
The game theory was developed recently. Coordination of actions through games has found its place in various fields.
Sexual assault occurs in different contexts and thereby has many causes and complications. The psychopathology model attempted to identify the mentally ill or chemically imbalanced. If a person committed sexual assault, he may be fit into this model. The belief that the rape is a product of his illness helps to select a treatment model for his therapy. Treatment models included approaches as castration, psychotherapy, electric shock, and hormone injections (Jones, 1999). This model began to be challenged around the 1970s. Though it has been discarded now, that rape occurs due to irresistible impulses has not totally lost its significance (Theories of Sexual Assault, Human Rights).
Religion-based Terrorism
Religion-based terrorism was initially considered to be a preoccupation of the poor. However after the 9/11 terror attacks in the US, this notion has been disproved (Newman et al, 2006). The terrorists in that attack were young, middle class, educated and possessed money.
The men were perhaps worried about the threat to their women, family and patriarchy. The invasion by the western world led to pornography, violence, entertainment outraging the modesty of women and bringing the problem of promiscuity into the family (Newman et al, 2006). Believing that all these issues would lead to degradation of their outlooks and religious sentiments and values, the men have resorted to terrorism to protest against the westernization.
They are resistant to change and do not cultivate the tradition of self-criticism. Globalization has threatened the traditional forms of market in many nations by the free market and economic forces, putting their economy into turmoil. Ethnic and religious tensions, globalism and antiglobalism, poverty and exploitation are the causes of terrorism (Lacqueur, 2001).
Hooliganism
Football hooliganism is a common situation for death and violence (Archetti and Romero, 1994). This crowd violence brings disorder into what should have been a public event designed to demonstrate the benefits of peaceful competition, numerical equality, respect for the rules of good conduct, clear penalties for infractions by players, team loyalty, respect for the adversary, group discipline, individual creativity, and victory as the prize reserved for the best players (Archetti and Romero, 1994). Subcultures of young working class fans who were unemployed felt that the game was being taken out of their hands into middle class and international competition. They did not appreciate the transformation of football for a middle class audience. The players were also turning to a jet-set lifestyle and losing contact with the working class. The speedy economic and political changes further alienated the working class. Economic and social differentiation became more defined.
Comparison of the 3 types of violence
Hooliganism can be described as a protest by the working class when social differences become sharper. It does not have the extent of thoughts, values and sentiments that terrorism has.
Moreover it is usually not a pre-planned move. It is more of a mob psychology where the numbers just join in when somebody sparks it off. Terrorism usually involves a religious group of people with their own culture coupled with the inability to accept change. They would prefer to strictly confine themselves rather than allowing other people with a different set of values into their midst whereby they expect an intrusion into their culture. They cannot accept changes to their culture. Their protest is in the form of terrorism. Sexual assault is more a violence involving the psyche of a single person. This person, usually a male, succumbs to his evolutionary instincts to assault a female in the act of propagation of species.
Deindividuation
Deindividuation, is the situation where anti-normative behavior is released in groups in which individuals are not seen or paid attention to as individuals (Festinger et al, 1952). Hooliganism can be considered as examples of deindividuation. There are three ways of how this can affect a group of people (Mullen et al, 2003). Each person when in a group ceases to function as an individual.The actions which would normally have affected him or inhibited him as an individual loses its effect when in a group. This results in the violent behaviour seen as looting and vandalism. Responsiveness is increased when in the group and one tends to follow what the others are doing. The persons adherence to the new norms that arise in the group is increased. (Mullen et al, 2003).
Disengagement theory
Disengagement theory delineates how relationships between people and other members of society are severed or altered in quality; each of these events constitutes a form of disengagement (Mcileen, 1998). Of the many postulates, the one that talks about disengagement between men and women, explains the occurrence of sexual assault. When the society is ready but the individual is not, disengagement occurs and this could be the background for terrorism.
Dehumanization
Dehumanization denotes the psychological process where the opponent is viewed as less than human and not deserving of moral and legal consideration (Postmes, 2001). The individual believes that the actions of the opponents are evil behavior. His thinking will be irrational and circuitous wanting to destroy his enemies at all costs. This manner of thinking is very descriptive of a terrorist. The oppressed party can change into the oppressor as in terrorism. Loss of individuality leads to total loss of control and releases a person from internalized moral restraints to produce emotional, impulsive, irrational, regressive and intense behavior (Postmes, 2001).
References
Archetti, E.P. and Romero, A.G. (1994) in Football, Violence and Social Identity (Eds.) Richard Giulianotti, Norman Bonny and Mike Hepworth. Publisher: Routledge. Place of Publication: New York. Publication Year: 1994.
Christle, C.A. et al, (2001). Youth Aggression and Violence: Risk, Resilience, and Prevention .
Dupre, J. (2001). Human Nature and the Limits of Science Published by Clarendon Publishers:Oxford, England.
Festinger, L., Pepitone, A. and Newcomb T. (1952). Some consequences of deindividuation in a group. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 382-389.
Jones, O.D. (1999). Sex, Culture, and the Biology of Rape: Toward Explanation and Prevention, 87 Cal. L.R. 827, 838-39.
Lacqueur, W. (2001). A History of Terrorism Published by Transaction Publishers New Brunwick and London.
Mcileen, Rband Gross, R (1998) Developmental psychology , London: Hudder and Stoughton Educational Publishers.
Mullen, B., Migdal, M., & Rozell, D. (2003). Self-Awareness, Deindividuation, and Social Identity: Unraveling Theoretical Paradoxes by Filling Empirical Lacunae. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(9), 1071-1081.
Newman, E., Thakur, R. and Tirman, J., (2006). Multilateralism under challenge?: Power, International order and Structural change . Academic Foundation Publisher, 2006.
Postmes, T. Spears, R and Cihangir, S. (2001), Quality of decision making and group norms Journal of personality and Social psychology, Vol. 80, p. 918-930.
Siever, L.J. (2008). Neurobiology of Aggression and Violence American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 165, p. 429-442 American Psychiatric Association.
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