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Introduction
Historical Background
The Irish Drama was closely associated with the dramatic work of the English theatre. It was namely the theatre that made the Irish playwrights famous on the English stage. The explanation of historical background helps to better understand the rise of theatrical art. The roots of the Irish Dramatic Movement derived from the heart of England. Ellis-Fermor argues that in England the theatre experienced rapid development supported by Puritan perception of the social and cultural beliefs1. In the course of its formation, the Irish Drama had to overcome both rises and falls.
The starting point of the development of the Irish theatre was the creation of the Irish Literary Society in London. This society was initiated by W. B. Yeats. Later on, the poet created the National Society in Dublin2.
Together with other outstanding playwrights like Edward Martyn, Lady Gregory, and George Moore, Yeats created the Irish Literary Theatre. It began its work with the performance in 18993. Initially, the plays were acted out by the English performers. This took place because there were no suitable Irish actors in that period. After a while, 1902 witnessed an important development when a group of talented Irish amateur players joined Yeatss theatre.
Spearheaded by Frank and William Fay, the performances gained enormous popularity among the audience. Particularly, the excellent play was recognized by Miss Horniman. She was a wealthy English Quaker, who contributed to the foundation the Abbey Theatre in Dublin. The prosperity of the Irish drama and the Abbey Company, however, experienced certain difficulties. The matter was that some plays provoked a wave of indignation. That made the Fay brothers leave the Company but still, the theatre continued its successful work.
The Rise of Irish Dramatic Movement
The Irish Dramatic movement is defined as the movement that made the revival of Irish folklore, traditions, and customs possible within a short period of time, from the beginning of the 1890s till the beginning of the 1900s. The literary past of Irelands is rich. In fact, it is so rich that it becomes very important to discover the ideas and lessons given to modern readers by the representatives of the Irish Dramatic Renaissance. This was the period of glory, freedom, and self-respect.
It is not easy to represent all authors and their works which made some contribution to the Irish Dramatic movement at once; this is why the brightest and the most influential works are chosen for this paper and for analysis; this will help to define the ideas of decolonization in relation to the Irish Dramatic Movement. The concept of decolonization may certainly be perceived as literary. Then it would mean the process opposite to colonization of countries.
However, the figurative and more philosophic vision of the concept is also promising, especially in terms of the interpretation of literature. The main idea of decolonization is closely connected to some governmental changes. These changes make people able to achieve independence and get personal freedoms. Here one can argue, that there exist different ways to decolonize people: some of them are cruel and bloody, and some of them are peaceful. The best example of how people use the idea of decolonization and freedom is perfectly depicted in literature. Emest argues that William Butler Yeats was one of the most popular dramatists. He states that Butler was a kind of pillar of the Irish movement that was synonymous with the Irish Literary Revival 4. His poems like Leda and the Swan or Sailing to Byzantium symbolize freedom and power that was so crucial and obligatory for Irish people. Of course, the achievements of this dramatist were not the only ones that promoted the development of the Irish movement.
The works introduced by Samuel Becket, John Millington Synge, and Harold Pinter deserve the same attention. These works perfectly describe o the power of will. It is not enough to say that freedom is important for people; it is not enough to underline the necessity to become stronger. Not only that the above-mentioned authors comprehended this truth, but they choose more complicated and more amazing ways to communicate with readers and teach them.
In addition to that, the representatives of the Irish Dramatic movement proved the necessity of their works. This necessity consisted in educating people and explaining how significant their liberty could be. In this realm, a written word has great power; and the word that was written during the Irish Dramatic Renaissance period seems to be even greater. These representatives also proved that freedom was priceless for people. They were able to teach how to achieve this freedom by means of self-evaluation and respect for each other. The process of decolonization that was inherent to 19th century Ireland was over, and now people knew how important their liberty could be. Besides, they knew what could happen if a person forgot his/her roots and had to fight against freedom and power.
Peculiarities of the Irish Dramatic Movement
All the artists who belonged to the Irish Dramatic Movement, such as Yeats, Becket, Synge, and Pinter, proclaimed that the essence of national identity [was] the creation of artists working freely and independently. 5 Thus, the proclamation of artistic independence turns out to be the primary feature of the movement.
Another feature of the Renaissance of Irish drama is its unknowingness , menace , and absurdity.6 The dramatists were eager to show that it was necessary to change all aspects of society that were rotten. They appealed to the readers and viewers making them think about the absurdity of their reality.
Lessons to be taught from Irish literature
The necessity of mental and physical decolonization is the main lesson that should be learned from Irish literature. The significance of art and culture in the life of a person is stressed by the authors. Political parties are concerned solely with daily reality cultural salvation is in art.7
Formal freedom is necessary for people but cultural Renaissance is even more important. However, cultural Renaissance is only possible if people keep their faith strong and start to act in order to get liberty. The struggle is essential. Though it is painful, it is the key to freedom.
Essence of decolonization
As already mentioned, decolonization may be understood in several ways. Literary, it is withdrawal from the control of the colonized and acquisition of freedom by the colony. However, legal or formal decolonization is not enough. Citizens are the main value of the state. This is why decolonization should refer not only to the political state of the country. It should concern its citizens too. Thus, figuratively, decolonization is the liberation of culture, art, literature of the country, intensification of a cultural movement. The liberation of the human mind is the essence of cultural decolonization. According to Said, Irish nationalism and aspiration for freedom and independence were marked by two hundred years of ongoing struggle8.
Therefore, the process of decolonization was the first step to sovereignty. The mass protests against colonization of the country have been also connected with the rise of the Irish Dramatic Movement. This event expresses his political view through poetic work9.
The role of W.B. Yeats in the Irish literature
Yeats made a significant contribution to both the spiritual and physical decolonization of the country and people. Yeats treated an artist as a conflicted figure, so it seems almost inevitable that he based his conceptions of national identity and the artists role in creating it on the clash of opposing forces 10. Thus, Yeats attributed the primary role in cultural nationalism to artists making them the actors of cultural decolonization of society11. However, he insisted that an artists role was increasingly restrictive at that time and that Ireland had the potential to inspire great art 12. His belonging to this great art has always been recognized.
Leda and the Swan is a poem by Yeats that brightly shows his literary talent and carries the theme of decolonization. In this poem, the character of Leda symbolically stands for colonized Ireland. At this, the invading English occupier is a swan that was Zeus, the chief Greek God disguised.13 In general, the poem reflects the events from the myth of raping a young woman, Leda, by Zeus who came as a giant swan.14
The form of the poem is a sonnet, the one used by Petrarch, a genius of the Renaissance. In this way, a parallel between Renaissance and the Irish Renaissance can be made. ONeil also suggests an interpretation of the poem where the swan is power of creative imagination. 15
In this case, the poem demonstrates its victory over dull reality. However, the idea of Ireland and the British invades seems more reasonable. In this case, the poem shows calamitous effects of the original rape of Ireland and of the equally precipitate British withdrawal. 16 This withdrawal perfectly suits the following line: Before the indifferent beak could let her drop. 17 The indifference of the colonizer in complex with the passivity of the colony suggests the necessity of decolonization.
Literary Characters and the Idea of Decolonization
John Millington Synges opinion
When the Moon Has Set by Synge is considered to be one of the most powerful literary works. It depicts the idea of freedom, or, it is better to say, the idea of decolonization. Synge was one of the leading figures in the Irish movement. His plays and ideas attracted the attention of many people after his death. Moreover, his ability to control the structure and create proper relevance between characters became rather influential for Irish literature.
When the Moon Has Set is a captivating story about a young man who supports atheistic ideas. This man does not find it necessary to believe in one God and be completely devoted to a concrete divine power. He finds himself free and happy. Soon, however, he falls in love with a nun. In comparison with the young man, the nun is completely devoted to the power of God. She hesitates to break some rules but still, she is weak before the power of love. One madwoman shares her personal unhappy experience with the nun who is going to leave the church and stay with the young man. The nun makes her choice and marries the man who is waiting for her.
The main characters of the play, such as Sister Eileen, the nun, function as manifestations of the harmony which can be achieved by a person in this world. The nuns example is contrasted to that of Mary Costello. She used to love but gave preference to her religious conviction instead of a proposal. This play conveys the personal grief of the author. Still, this does not mean that the intimate problem is the only stimulus for the creation of the work. Synge emphasizes that it is necessary to achieve harmony with the world and people surrounding you. Decolonization as the spiritual revival is meant in the play. Its bearer is Sister Eileen, a decolonized person. This person manages to throw off the bonds of religion for the sake of her own nature and love.
A gloomy life story of Maurya described in Riders to the Sea is one more demonstration of the call for decolonization. Here, Maurya is not its bearer. Instead, she is the opposite character who adheres to submissive fate. Though Synge does not criticize the womans action openly, he still condemns her. He shows the reader that mournful existence is doomed. Bickley also states that the tragedy of the old womans revolt is as nothing to the tragedy of her resignation. 18 The final idea uttered by Maurya is No man at all can be living forever, and we must be satisfied. This is a call to spiritual revival and the choice to favor life that is given to us instead of death and its threat.19 The youngest son of hers, Bartley, is taken away by the sea. He represents the struggle that is so necessary for society. Struggle, both literary and spiritual, is an essential condition of decolonization. Probably, Bartleys loneliness in his struggle is the reason for his defeat and death. In this way, the play becomes an even more evident example of the necessity of decolonization.
Pinters contribution
Harold Pinter is a playwright whose contribution to drama is especially important. He is our contemporary, the man who lived on the border of centuries. What is more important, he showed the urgent necessity of decolonization in contemporary society. The common setting, such as the one used in The Room is predominantly used by the author in his other plays. The main feature of the plays by Pinter is the omission of any explanation of the characters actions that should be given by the author. This absence of any explanation creates a menacing effect. A reader or a viewer is shocked and even nervous as the action on the stage may seem simply senseless and unmotivated. Almansi and Henderson describe Pinters idiom as essentially human because it is an idiom of lies and stratagems. 20 It is hardly possible to find a better phrase to describe the dramatic works by Pinter. The majority of them are so impressive that they never leave a reader indifferent. Pinters works are the plays belonging to the trend called comedy of menace. Thus, the essence of the plays can be understood with the help of the term itself. Menace is present in all plays. It enters the daily routine of the characters and readers cannot resist it.
In The Room, the characters, for instance, Rose Hudd and Mr. Kidd have a seemingly senseless dialogue. This dialogue is a trifle but somehow frightening. The play opens with Rose serving breakfast to her husband, Bert. At this, a reader or a viewer understands that the action takes place in the evening. Raby offers a perfect idea that the readers are being fascinated by something we do not understand. 21 The absurdity of dialogues and actions of the characters provide hints at the absurdity of life. This is how they present the state of society. Anxiety and necessity of movement and change are shown through the character of Rose.
She is constantly moving. She is walking around the room. Moreover, even sitting in a chair, she is constantly rocking. On the one hand, such behavior intensifies anxiety. On the other hand, it suggests the necessity of change. Thus, the need for changes is stressed by the dramatist. Consequently, it is the need for the decolonization of the human mind. Though Pinter never uses this term, he stresses the necessity of change in society. He considers it absurd and depraved. This is why he hints at the necessity of reshaping our mind, which is the act of decolonization in itself.
The example of Pinters drama can be contrasted to colonial discourse. It is described by Bhabha as dependent on the concept of fixity. This concept connotes rigidity and an unchanging order as well as disorder, degeneracy and daemonic repetition. 22 In contrast to it, a movement that is typical of Pinters drama is a sign of decolonization, alteration of society.
Becket and his vision of the issue. All readers and viewers are free to interpret Samuel Beckets Waiting for Godot from their own perspective. In any of these interpretations, the impact of decolonization in the poem will be felt. Waiting for Godot is a marvelous play that is brightly characterized as the drama of unknowingness by Graver.23 Uncertainty, absence of change, and global tension are the main motives of the play. The drama has to circle composition and presents similar actions in both acts. The title of the play, Waiting for Godot, conveys the main meaning of the drama. It suggests that humanity is in the search and anticipation of salvation and change. This may again be interpreted as the necessity of decolonization for the revival of humanity.
The main characters of the play are Vladimir and Estragon. They are friends who are waiting for a mysterious man called Godot. This man actually never comes as long as the play goes on. It is a significant fact that Estragon is greatly dependent on Vladimir. The friend even helps him to take his boot off. This fact suggests that the two characters are symbolic images that stand for the whole of humanity. Through them, the skillful playwright manages to show the image of all people on the stage. Vladimir and Estragon fail to meet Godot or, rather, the mysterious man fails to come though they have an appointment. Vladimir states, we are not saints, but we have kept our appointment. How many people can boast as much? 24
The characters and their actions suggest that Godot is necessary for people. Without him, life loses its sense. The characters even contemplate suicide when they learn from the boy that Godot will not come. This shows how patiently humanity is waiting for salvation.
Though the playwright never tells if Godot comes or not, the mood of the play may be interpreted as positive. As long as people wait for salvation, there is the possibility that it will come. It is to wait, but not passively as the characters of the play did. Rather, people should move in the direction of Godot in order to make the meeting closed. This is the main idea of decolonization, the evolution of humanity, action combined with strong faith.
Analyzing Waiting for Godot, two more characters should be mentioned from the point of view of the theme of decolonization in the play. These are Pozzo, the master, and Lucky, his slave. These two characters are evidently symbolic. They may be interpreted as the cumulative image of the people living in a colony where Pozzo is a colonizer. Becket reveals the ugly truth about colonization. People in the colonies are literary ordered when to sing and when to think, just as Lucky.
His name can be considered ironic. In the second act, Pozzo appears to be blind. This shows that the colonizers turn a blind eye to the necessities of their colonies. Similarly, Luckys deafness and dumbness suggest that people in colonies choose to submit to their fate instead of struggling for their freedom. Thus, both couples of characters promote the idea of decolonization to a certain extent.
Importance of freedom in literature: Ulysses by James Joyce. Freedom has always been the theme that was predominant in world literature. In fact, it is possible to find the motives of freedom in almost any literary work. For example, Freud and Karl Marx focused their works on the theme of the freedom of an individual in society. It is possible to mention numerous authors and literary works in this relation. However, since Irish literature is the subject of the present paper, it would be more relevant to mention Ulysses by James Joyce.
The struggle for artistic freedom as the sign of freedom of all people can be observed even in the form of the book. Additionally, its language and manner of narration ignore all possible logical and traditional rules of punctuation and style. The volume of the book along with the topics tackled breaks the rules of tradition and morality. It sets the literature free and inspires society to act in the same way. It prompts it to move in the direction of decolonization of mind and physical liberation too.
Human cognition of liberty in the modern world.
Nowadays democratic countries prevail in the world. Those countries that used to be colonies and recently got independence are supported by developed countries. The situation suggests that literacy, individual liberty, and independence guarantee success and harmonious existence of people. Though the state should guarantee freedom of citizens, a political party may very well speak of the nation in emotional terms, but it is primarily interested in getting the people who are listening to understand that they must join in the struggle if they want quite simply to exist. 25 Thus, citizens should understand that, for them to be free, desperation and ignorance should be conquered26. The example of the Irish Dramatic movement should become the guiding one for contemporary literature.
Conclusion
Drawing a conclusion, it is possible to state that the impact of decolonization is clearly felt in the literary works of Irish dramatists and poets. It seems to me that decolonization is understood by them not in its literary meaning but in a figurative one. Decolonization is possible by means of art and literature. This is what Irish dramatists state and prove with the help of their works. They call for peoples common sense. They try to awaken them and their interest in the cultural past of the country. Also, they draw their attention to the reality that needs changes. I think that the primary aim of these dramatists is to inspire the evolution and development of society. In this way, they will make people change for the better and become really free.
Works Cited
Primary Sources
Synge, John Millington. Riders in the Sea. USA: BiblioBazaar, 2009.
Yeats, William, B. The Collected Poems of W.B. Yeats. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Limited, 2000.
Secondary Sources
Almansi, Guido, & Simon Henderson. Harold Pinter. New York: Routledge, 1983.
Bhabha, Homi, K. The Location of Culture. New York: Routledge, 2005.
Bickley, Francis. J.M. Synge and the Irish Dramatic Movement. Read Books, 2008.
Boyd, Ernest, A. Irelands Literary Renaissance. BiblioLife LLC, 2009.
Cusack, George. The Politics of Identity in Irish Drama: W.B. Yeats, Augusta Gregory and J.M. Synge. New York: Routledge, 2009.
Fanon, Frantz and Philcox, Richard. The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press, 2004.
Graver, Lawrence. Samuel Becket, Waiting for Godot. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Harlow, Barbara. Resistance Literature. NJ: Routledge, 1987.
ONeill, Michael. A Routledge Literary Sourcebook on the Poems of W.B. Yeats. New York: Routledge, 2004.
Raby, Peter. The Cambridge Companion to Harold Pinter. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. US: Vitage, 1994.
Said, Edward, W., and David Barsamian. Culture and Resistance: Conversations with Edwards W. Said. Cambridge: South End Press, 2003.
Synge, John Millington, Yeats William Butler, Armstrong William A., and Sean OCasey. The playboy of the Western world and two other Irish plays. US: Penguin Classics, 1987.
Una, Ellis-Fermor. The Irish Dramatic Movement. 2nd ed. London: Methuen, 1954.
Footnotes
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Ellis-Fermor Una. The Irish Dramatic Movement. 2nd ed. London: Methuen, 1954, p. 33.
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Ibid., p. 33.
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John Millington Synge, William Butler Yeats, William A. Armstrong, and Sean OCasey. The playboy of the Western world and two other Irish plays. US: Penguin Classics, 1987. p.8.
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Ernest, A. Boyd, Irelands Literary Renaissance. BiblioLife LLC, 2009, p. 122.
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George Cusack The Politics of Identity in Irish Drama: W.B. Yeats, Augusta Gregory and J.M. Synge. New York: Routledge, 2009. p. 118.
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Lawrence Graver. Samuel Becket, Waiting for Godot. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. p. 19.
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Frantz Fanon, and Richard Philcox. The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press, 2004. p. 146.
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Edward W. Said. Culture and Imperialism. US: Vitage, 1994, p. 326.
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Barbara Harlow. Resistance Literature. NJ: Routledge, 1987.
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George Cusack. The Politics of Identity in Irish Drama: W.B. Yeats, Augusta Gregory and J.M. Synge. New York: Routledge, 2009. p. 44.
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Ibid., p. 44.
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Ibid., p. 45.
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Michael ONeill. A Routledge Literary Sourcebook on the Poems of W.B. Yeats. New York: Routledge, 2004. p. 83
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William B Yeats. The Collected Poems of W.B. Yeats. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Limited, 2000. p.183.
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Michael ONeill. A Routledge Literary Sourcebook on the Poems of W.B. Yeats. New York: Routledge, 2004. p. 83
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Ibid., p. 83.
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William B Yeats. The Collected Poems of W.B. Yeats. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Limited, 2000. p.183.
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John Millington Synge. Riders in the Sea. USA: BiblioBazaar, 2009. p. 36.
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John Millington Synge. Riders in the Sea. USA: BiblioBazaar, 2009. p. 45.
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Guido Almansi, & Simon Henderson. Harold Pinter. New York: Routledge, 1983. p. 13.
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Peter Raby. The Cambridge Companion to Harold Pinter. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. p. 7.
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Homi K. Bhabha. The Location of Culture. New York: Routledge, 2005. p. 94
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Lawrence Graver. Samuel Becket, Waiting for Godot. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. p. 19.
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Ibid., p. 20.
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Frantz Fanon, and Richard Philcox. The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press, 2004. p. 146.
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Edward, W. Said, and David Barsamian. Culture and Resistance: Conversations with Edwards W. Said. Cambridge: South End Press, 2003. p. 107.
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