Order from us for quality, customized work in due time of your choice.
Abstract
Environmental studies provide learners with an opportunity to advance their knowledge of how organisms interact with their environment. The study enhances ones knowledge of how the interaction shapes the species of organisms. Some species have gone extinct, while others have undergone significant changes to fit in the new environment. A clear understanding of how different primate forms evolved enables one to find our Place in the primate family tree.
Paleocene Plesiadapiforms
Purgatorius (Early Paleocene, North America)
The Purgatorius is believed to be the earliest representative of a primate. Being a genus of the seven extinct eutherian species, the Purgatorius dated around 66 million years ago. The collection of the first remains of Purgatorius was in 1965 at the currently known Eastern Montanas Tullock Formation. The species include the Purgatorius ceratops and the Purgatorius unio, whose fossils were precisely found at Purgatory Hill, hence its name. The species fossils have also been discovered in McCone County around the lower Paleocene Hell Creek Formation and the Harbicht hill. A further collection of the remains of the Purgatorius has been reported in the Ravenscrag Formation, Leptictids, and early Paleocene Bug Creek Group.
The Purgatorius existed shortly after the demise of the dinosaurs when plants began to bear fruits. Scientific revelations of the diet of the Purgatorius indicate that the primate consumed fruits, insects, and flowers. This revelation reveals that the area had plants and trees, which supported the availability of fruits and food for insects. The details regarding the brain of Purgatorius are not widely known due to the high crash impact on the remains. However, the primate is believed to have a primitive brain characterized with anteriorly expanded, large and conjoined olfactory bulbs with a notably larger hindbrain compared to the cerebrum.
The Lissencephalic cerebrum of the early primate was also found to be smaller. Due to the crushing impact, the Encephalization Quotient (EQ) could not be ascertained, but it is estimated to be smaller than the preceding primates. These primates primary habitat was North America. The primates locomotive patterns include walking vertically using their four legs, while no research has been made available for the sensory system of the species.
The primate teeth entail topotypic lower molars, with the first and second molars having the same length. The dentition of the species has been determined to be more primitive than those of any other known living and fossil primates. Recent findings indicate that the Purgatorius had a flexible ankle. The musculus flexor fibularis of the species enables digital flexion and plantarflexion within the foot, which is essential for grasping.
Plesiadapis Paleocene
The Plesiadapis represents one of the oldest mammals with primate-like features around 55-60 million years ago. The species is named after its three cusps which are located within its upper incisors. The remains of the Plesiadapis have been discovered in the late Paleocene and central continental areas in North America and Europe. In North America, the Plesiadapis existed during the Clarkforkian and Tiffani lan mammals, where its fossils were recovered. The species lived longer in Europe, where it existed during the earlier years of the Ypresian geological age. The majority of the remains of this species comprise isolated teeth, postcranial skeleton, and maxillae. Some of the dating techniques commonly used by scientists in dating the Plesiadapis fossils include Mammalian Biostratigraphy and Geochronology.
Plesiadapis being squirrel-like mammals, majority of its body features like claws, fingers, and toes indicate that they lived in areas with high forest cover. These features were vital in the locomotion of the mammal, climbing, grasping, and clinging on trees. Plesiadapis is an archaic primate meaning the species shares some standard features with the primates while lacking other features. Some of these common features involve the molar teeth.
The locomotion pattern has ranged from subterranean bouncing to quasi sensoriality and tree bouncing, and claw climbing. The diet of Plesiadapis is still debatable though scientists believe the mammal lived in trees in the forests. Having emanated from carnivorous/insectivorous lineage, changes within the primates that permitted grinding and crushing changed the diet to omnivore and herbivore diets. Scientists reveal that the Plesiadapis had a flexible body, bushy tail, with a snout-like face. There is a gap between the premolars and the incisors of the primate, while the dental formula comprises two incisors, one canine, three premolars, and three molars (2.1.3.3).
Plesiadapis, just like other earlier primates, had a small brain size compared to its body size. The brain of the mammal is estimated to weigh around 5g. The mammals skull has been found to comprise the braincase, rostrum, basicranium, and lower and upper dentition. The axial skeleton of the primate includes six lumbar vertebrae, 12 thoracic and five cervical vertebrae. No data has been recorded on the jaw muscles, thorax, and shoulders of the species.
Eocene Euprimates
Teilhardina (Early Eocene) Asia, Europe, North America
Euprimates refer to a group of primates that are considered primates of modern aspects. The teilhardina can be understood as a small creature resembling the modern-day bushbaby with a long tail, strong back legs, and big eyes. The remains of Euprimates were first recorded during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PEtM). Teilhardina is characterized as a tiny fur-covered creator that spent most of their time on trees. The primate is reported to have a longer tail compared to the size of the body and a long and slender tail. The primate has been identified as one of the oldest and allegedly most primitive creatures amongst the omohyoid. Different species of teilhardina have been discovered in North America, Asia, and Europe.
The species was named after French Jesuit philosopher and paleontologist Teilhard de Chardin after its discovery 56 million years ago. One of the methods used for dating the fossils includes the use of carbon isotope stratigraphy.
Body features recorded for the primate give knowledge on the environment in which the primate operated. Features such as lateral hand positions indicate grasps on trees. Analysis of the hind limb of the primate shows foot inversion abilities, arboreal lifestyle, climbing, leaping and grasping. These features mean that the primate lived in an area associated with trees and dry land.
The recording of the majority of the species of teilhardina bears only jaw fragments and teeth. However, the species teilhardina Asiatica takes a complete skull restoration. The skull indicates that this species had relatively more nominal orbits in line with the daily activity patternthe species t. Belgica wa found to bear various ankle bones, distal femur, finger bones, and a proximal metatarsal holding the big toe. These features reveal that the creature was arboreal as the hindlimb was adapted for grasping and leaping. The primates are reported to adopt a hunting-like behavior where they utilize their elongated arms to pin prey to the ground.
A key finding reported amongst the teilhardina is that the primate experienced weaker molar shearing crests than the latter primates (Schultz et al. 1-45). This situation led to a mixed diet for the primate, which comprised insects and fruits. The rodent-like primates walked using four dry-land legs and could use their back legs to jump on tress. The habitat of the primate was on trees, where it also built its nest. No data has been recorded on the thorax size sensory system jaw muscle, and shoulders.
Skeleton Reconstruction and Photo of the Teilhardina
Darwinius
The Darwinius represent a genus from a group of basal strepsirrhine primates that lived during the Eocene period. The only known species of the genus is the Darwinius masillae, whose remains were collected 47 million years ago. Scientists used chronostratigraphy to date the fossil from the rock stages at a quarry in Messel, southeast Frankfurt, Germany. The Darwinius masillae is one of the complete primate fossils collected.
The Darwinius masillae, nicknamed Ida, is one of the most controversial fossils as it is presented as the missing link between prosimian and anthropoid primates. Some scientists believe the form was a prominent evolutionary form interlinking the primitive primates with the prosimian and simian genealogy. A classification of the fossil placed it to a period when primates divided two different clades.
Some developed to prosimians while others developed to anthropoid monkeys and finally apes. It is also worth noting that other scientists have disagreed with the findings that Darwinius is the missing link between primitive primates and anthropoids. These scientists claim that the Darwinius was indeed a strepsirrhine. This group includes primates like the lorises, lemurs, and galagos. This classification eliminates Darwinius from being the direct ancestors of humans but rather an ancestor to the tooth-combed prosimians.
The cat-sized primate is estimated to have been around 58 cm from the nose to the tail. The fossil collected indicates that the Darwinius possessed primate-like features, including nails instead of claws and opposable thumbs that comprehend the grasping hands on the lemur-like skeleton. The handmade features are suitable for the Darwinius to have an efficient grip crucial for climbing and gathering fruits. The fossils stomach content reveals that the last meals that Ida had taken were leaves and fruit, thereby indicating the rich in fruit-bearing trees and vegetation. The Darwinius fossil also revealed shorter limbs and flexible arms. On the contrary, the fossil recovered was missing crucial features commonly identified in lemurs. The fossil lacked a blended row of teeth, a grooming claw within its feet, and a toothcomb within its bottom jaw.
The commotion of the Darwinius walked using its four legs. The primitive thorax is shorter than the legs. The primitive sensory system is made up of eyes, ears, and tongues. The primitive also could detect danger, and its brain was also used as a sense organ. Data on the shoulder and jaw muscle of the species has not been found.
Lemurs (Lemuroids) Of Madagascar
Aye aye (extant, Madagascar)
The Aye-aye, which lives in the rainforests of Madagascar, is mainly a rare species in the Animalia kingdom and the sole member of its family classification. Lemurs Island in Madagascar with the fossils first discovered in 1833. The aye-aye runs and walks in the forests trees and mostly likes to operate during the night. The unique ayes trait is its exceedingly tiny middle finger, which it uses to tap on trees to detect grubs beneath the bark. The aye-aye uses percussive foraging to identify open spots in the trees by listening for echoes. When an individual discovers a hollow area of a tree, it gnaws through the bark and uses its fingertips to search for grubs and insects within the tree.
The middle finger of the forearm is distinguished from the others by its somewhat birdlike structure and increased joint flexibility. Though the fourth finger is the longest on the hand, the middle finger has unparalleled reach. The metacarpal works as an extension base; the web of skin between the second and fourth fingers has been inhibited. Free fingertip movement in the middle finger is yet another notable trait of the aye-hand ayes specialty. The tapping finger moves much quicker than the other fingers when the aye-aye taps the wood with its middle finger as it glides along a wood surface. Videotapes of aye-aye palms exploring cavities revealed the movement of the middle digit inside the crater was significantly more significant than the movement of the hand and fingers outside the hole.
Aye-ayes both have a distinct skull and teeth. Unlike all the other strepsirrhines, they lack a toothcomb. 1/1, 0/0, 1/0, 3/3 = 18 is the adult dental formula. The deciduous dentition includes extra upper and lower incisors, premolars, and an upper canine. The adult bottom teeth are massively enormous and constantly expanding. Only the anterior surface of the Ayes teeth has enamel; therefore, they self-sharpen as they wear just like rodent incisors. A diastema exists posterior to the incisors while the cheek teeth have flattened cusps and are inconspicuous. The skulls have been rounded, and the face area has been shortened.
The mammal weighs around 2.5 kilos, with females weighing somewhat less than males by approximately 100 grams on average. Aside from weight and male and female genitalia, there is no sexually phenotypic variation in aye-ayes. Both genders have a 44-53 cm tail and face length of 30-37 cm, while the neck of an adult bears black or dark brown fur with white guard hairs. The tail of an aye-aye is bushy and squirrel-like in appearance. The Aye- ayes face is rodent-like, with brilliant, beady, luminous eyes in the form of raccoons. It has pretty big upper teeth that continue to develop throughout its life. Aye-aye walked on four legs, and it mainly live-in forests in Madagascar. The primate had large ears, an ever-growing incisor, and an extended middle finger which formed the sensory system. Data on the jaw muscle, thorax, and shoulders of the species has not been recorded.
Indri (extant, Madagascar)
The first skull in Madagascar was discovered in 282 BC. The dating method used for the fossil was radiocarbon dating. The Indri belongs to a type of lemur that can only be found on the remote island of Madagascar. The Indri, like all other Lemurs, originated from little creatures who arrived on the island from Africa some 50 million years ago. The Indri is locally referred to as the babakoto, meaning little father or forefather of mankind. Indris are the most prominent existing Lemur subspecies, with some individuals reaching about a meter in height. On the other hand, the typical Indri is between 60 and 80 cm tall, with a 5cm tail.
The molars have four quadritubercular teeth. The paracone and metacone produce sharp-edged vertical facets that flank V-shaped embrasures between the molars and interlopes on the occlusal surfaces. The protoconid and hypoconid are joined on the lower molars by crests that produce a zigzag shearing surface.
The Indri has a rich coat of silky black fur with various white spots according to the location. Their toes and fingers are exquisite and ideal for grabbing, and their large hind legs help them leap 10 meters between towering forest trees. The glowing eyes of the Indri face forward to help them evaluate distance before jumping. The Indri, together with the diademed sifaka, is a giant primate presently alive. Each species typically measures around 6.5 kilograms but weighs as much as 9.0 kg, 9.5 kg, and maybe up to 15 kg. The primate has a face range of 6472 cm and may reach over 120 cm (4 ft), including its limbs when it completely stretches.
Indri lemurs are known as vertical creepers and tree swarmers. The nearly tailless Indri runs from tree to branch up to 30 feet with a packed spring-like action made feasible by the breadth and power of its back legs. Indri locomote using four legs on dry land and the legs are also used in climbing of trees. When they are not leaping or climbing, the primates hold to a vertical support, the stance depicted by our flexible skulls mount. Indri males and females have an insignificant difference in their physical structure but only in their sexual organs. A female takes about two to three months to give birth. A young indri has grey hair and turns black as it ages at around two years old. Main sensory organs include mouth eyes nose and its ability to have a very strong eye sight. No data on thorax and shoulders of the species has been recorded.
Early Anthropoids
Aegyptopithecus zeuxis (30 Ma, Fayum, Egypt)
Indri lemurs are known as vertical creepers and tree swarmers. The nearly tailless Indri runs from tree to branch up to 30 feet with a packed spring-like action made feasible by the breadth and power of its back legs. Indri locomotion is through its four legs on dry land, and the legs are also used in climbing trees. When they are not leaping or climbing, the primates hold to a vertical support, the stance depicted by our flexible skulls mount. Indri males and females have an insignificant difference in their physical structure but only in their sexual organs. A female takes about two to three months to give birth. A young indri has grey hair and turns black as it ages at around two years old. The primary sensory organs include the mouth, eyes, nose, and its ability to have powerful eyesight. No data on the thorax and shoulders of the species has been recorded.
The cutting edges engaged in the buccal phase surround basins so that material is chopped into pieces. These pieces are retained and ground during the lingual phase, resulting in a compartmentalizing shear adaptation in the molars. Researchers have found the canines of this species as hermaphroditic, while the ascending mandible ramus of this species is relatively large. As the orbits are dorsally oriented and small, the primate was considered a diurnal animal. In this species, there has been some continued usage contraction. Aegyptopitheccus Zeuxis was suspected of hermaphroditic, indicated by tooth size, craniofacial shape, brain size, and body mass.
Due to the sexual dimorphism of A. Zeuxis, the social organization is assumed to have been polygynous, with solid competitors for females. The cranial size of this specimen was determined to be 14.63 cm3, whereas a reanalysis of a male endocast estimated a cranial capacity of 21.8 cm3. These figures disprove prior estimates of around 30 cm3. These results result in a male to the female embryological ratio of about 1.5, showing that A. Zeuxis is a dimorphic subspecies.
Based on the characteristics of the jaw structure, the spices may feed of handy things like tree trunks. Male and female body sizes are similar and their dental alignment, especially in premolars and canine. It is approximated that the male had more weight than the female, while the skull shows the primitive adaptation and how the head was structured. Research shows that the primate had two sharp canines teethes. The animal, which was monkey-like, walked on for legs and mostly lived on trees. Data on the thorax and shoulders of the species is yet to be recorded.
Proconsul (or Ekembo) heseloni (18-20 Ma, East Africa)
The Proconsul (or Ekembo) heseloni was estimated to have lived around 17- to 20-million-years during the Miocene period. The fossil deposits of these primates were found in Rusinga Island and Mfangano Island in Lake Victoria, specifically near Kenyas old Kisingiri volcano. The word Ekembo comes from the Suba language and means ape. The dental and mandibular anatomy of Ekembo distinguishes it from other early Miocene catarrhines. Ekembos molars are rounder or bunodont than Proconsuls, and its canine teeth taper to a tip, whereas Proconsul is more blade-like. The method used for dating is relative dating, in which the fossils were dated by dating the rocks where the fossils were found. Carbon dating was used to date the fossils as carbon isotopes were present in their teeth as herbivorous.
Non-forest forms of woodland are some of the settings connected with proconsulid species. The largest proconsulid species weigh around 2880 kg and are more significant than most arboreal monkeys. The ability of these primates to travel in trees would have been limited, as observed in terrestrial baboons today. As a result, reports indicate, the species were partially terrestrial. Early Miocene settings associated with proconsulids were somewhat seasonal, according to a mixture containing simulations with Ekombo being believed to have lived in the savanna and had a different diet.
The Proconsul (or Ekembo) heseloni has been indicated to possess forest-dwelling adaptations in the upper arm as the humerus heads higher torsion. Compared to other primates, the primate lacked a shaft curvature and a trailing edge. The radius neck is somewhat expanded in the forearm, the ulnas spinous structure is lengthened, and the thoracic index is less than those in other remaining monkeys and apes. The patella is big, flat, and thin, comparable to that of chimps but differs from that of monkeys, which is thicker. Other than their temporary structure, the other difference is that male canines were different from females.
The Proconsuls four legs and two arms help climb trees. They also lived as a group or as a family where there was the male and the female. Some of the adaptions recorded on these species are small arms than legs. They were bipedal, and they lived on trees just like the monkeys. Their sensory organs resembled that of human beings, like the nose, ears, and mouth. The species data on jaw muscle, thorax, and shoulders are yet to be recorded.
Extant Hominoids
Bornean Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Orangutans are giant apes that live in the Indonesian and Malaysian jungles. Currently, they are exclusively found in Borneo Island, although they once roamed Southeast Asia and South China during the Pleistocene period. The method of dating used by scientists was carbon dating since they were herbivorous; thereby, scientists could trace the carbon in their teeth. The Bornean orangutan can be found in tropical and subtropical wet broadleaf woodland as well as hilly places.
Bornean orangutans live in lowland largest and most significant, freshwater and peat mangrove swamps. The majority of their diet comprises figs, durians, pineapple, mulberries, ripe mangoes, branches, nuts, insects, termites, and bark. Females achieve sexual maturity at roughly 10-15 years of age and, depending on the quality of the environment, give birth to a single offspring every 6-8 years. Researchers have confirmed nest-building activity among the Bornean orangutans. Nests are designed to be used at night or during the day while the young orangutans learn by watching their mothers make nests. Orangutan hands feature four long fingers but a somewhat smaller opposable figure, allowing them to maintain a firm grasp on branches as they go high in the trees. Orangutans feet contain four long fingers and a prehensile big toe, allowing them to grab objects firmly with both their arms through using the palms of their legs.
Physical masses of Bornean orangutan largely overlap with the far more giant Hominids; however, the latter is much more varied in stature. In comparison, the Sumatran orangutan is comparable in size but generally weighs somewhat less. Male averaged 75 kg (165 lb) and a length of 1.21.7 m (3.95.6 ft). On the other hand, females mean 38.5 kilograms, with a 3050 kg weight range and a length of 11.2 m. The ape uses its two legs and two arms to climb trees and also to walk. The sensory organs are similar to apes as they use ears, eyes, mouth, hands, and nose as their primary sensory organs. Data on jaw muscle, thorax, and shoulders of the species have not yet been entered.
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
Chimpanzees are baboon-like creatures that live in the wilderness. They have different characteristics, and they closely resemble that of baboons. Pan fossils were not described until 2005, despite a massive number of Homo fossil discoveries. Although chimpanzee communities in African countries do not coincide with critical human fossils sites in East Africa, chimpanzee fossils have recently been discovered in Kenya. This discovery suggests that both humans and members of the Pan clade lived in the East African Rift Valley throughout the Middle Pleistocene.
The chimpanzee is covered with thick black fur but has a naked face, fingertips, feet, palms, and soles of the feet. The primate is big and tough, measuring 4070 kg for males and 2750 kg for females, and 120150 cm tall. The mammal has an eight-month reproductive cycle while the baby is separated from its mother at around three years of age but typically retains a strong bond. The chimpanzee is a highly adaptive animal found in a wide range of environments comprising of; dry savannah, temperate jungle, coniferous forests, wetland woods, and a dry wooded mosaic. The chimps in Gombe prefer they confined an evergreen and deciduous forests. At Bossou, the chimps live in a multilevel intermediate forested area that arose due to shifting agricultural and primary forest and grassland.
The chimpanzee is a frugivorous omnivore, and berries are its preferred meal, although it also consumes leaves and leaf buds, seeds, blooms, stems, pith, wood, and resin. Chimpanzees walk quadrupedally using a technique called knuckle-walking. Chimpanzees have 1.5 times the physical strength of humans due to a more significant percentage of rapid burst muscle adapted explicitly for hanging on trees. Their sensory organs are close to that of human beings with five sensory organs. Great apes have several anatomical characteristics in the shoulder and upper thorax that have been connected to orthograde arborealism in the past. The figure of the primate is adapted for impact resistance throughout terrestriality. The chimpanzee has strong jaw muscles to help them eat as they are omnivorous.
Early Hominins
Australopithecus afarensis
Australopithecus was an endangered australopithecine species that flourished in E
Order from us for quality, customized work in due time of your choice.