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Abstract
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is an emerging tool for effective waste management as well as an efficient method for sitting landfills and other dumpsites. Due to the global shortage of land for solid waste disposal especially near the major towns and cities, landfilling areas must be well selected to minimize environmental pollution. In Northern Ghana, most of the landfilling sites are randomly selected due to a lack of appropriate data and selection methods. Adequate selection of a land filing site requires a detailed evaluation of the topography, land use, surface water, groundwater, geology, vegetation, human settlement, and soils within the area. This necessitates the use of GIS during the analysis and decision-making process. Though GIS enables easier and manageable landfill site selection, it also has many limitations such as lack of accurate maps, complicated spatial analysis methods, and the need to manage and evaluate large datasets.
In this project, GIS was used for selecting the most appropriate location for landfilling. The main objectives of this project were to develop an effective landfilling selection method using ArcMap technology and to test the suitability of GIS as a tool for locating landfills. To do this, ArcGIS 10.1 was used to develop and analyze maps of Northern Ghana soils, topography, elevation, geology, vegetation, roads, rivers, and towns. After locating these sites, it was possible to estimate the best location for the landfilling site. A criterion was developed to alienate areas that are unsuitable for landfills. This criterion set out the minimum conditions for every area for example: no landfills 200m from a lake no landfills near rivers , no landfills within 500m from the highway , and no landfills near habitation areas . Among the main features with limitations include; roads, lakes, rivers, highways, towns, wetlands, airports, rural and urban habitations. Spatial analysis using ArcGIS 10.1 enabled marking and alienations of the unsuitable areas leaving the suitable areas where landfills can be located.
The project results indicate that most of the landfills in Northern Ghana have not been well selected and have a great negative impact on the environment. The results also indicate that GIS is an effective tool for the selection of an appropriate site for a landfill. The main problems encountered during the research were lack of accurate maps and the complicated spatial analysis process. It is therefore recommended that GIS methods be used for selecting the most suitable land filing areas.
Introduction: Landfill Sites and Northern Ghana
In the XX century, the issue of pollution has started gaining significance increasingly fast; pollution awareness, as well as its dreadful effects, mainly the process of ozone layer ruining, was spreading at an incredibly rapid pace. However, as soon as the gimmick wore out its welcome and people realized that pollution is not going to affect the Earth immediately, the turmoil dissolved only to return in the XXI century, when the problem of pollution in general and land pollution, in particular, has reached epic proportions (Abbreviated preliminary assessment for Genesee landfill 2012). Because of the wrong waste disposal policies in several countries, pollution rates have peaked over the past few decades (Waste policy guidance: WM13 and WM15 site selection criteria 2013). Northern Ghana, as the recent researches state:
Currently, the landfill method of waste management is what is employed in Ghana. With this, the waste materials are sent from homes to a collection site, usually, collection bins, which are then transported for final deposition, usually a landfill site at places like Pantang, Weija, and Kpone. (Information note: 017. Landfill sites as a waste management option in Ghana 2012)
Landfill sites located in the least appropriate places, which leads to the rapid cluttering of the state with litter, is the top priority in the landfill sites location agenda.
When it comes to defining the best way that can help to locate the landfill sites on practically any territory, the GIS system comes as the most reasonable method to put to practice. Indeed, according to the previous researches, GIS not only offers a plethora of opportunities for the location of various places for industrial, technical, or any other purposes but also helps evaluate the possible effects of locating a specific site in a specifically chosen area.
Seeing how at present, Northern Ghana is suffering from a rapid increase in the amount landfill sites within the state and how the aforementioned site affects the states environment and, therefore, the health issues, the industry, and the infrastructure, it can be assumed that the issue of landfill sites location must be solved as soon as possible, otherwise, drastic results are going to ensue. Since the location of landfill sites will require a thorough analysis of the Ghanaian land, i.e., the local types of soil, the system of rivers in Ghana, as well as the existing grass canopy type, the types of forests and, probably, the fauna of the state, the ArcGis technology must be used to address every possible issue and take every single factor into account.
Landfill sites the associated issues and the existing solutions
There is no secret that dealing with the waste produced by people, as well as factory waste produced in thousands of tons by the world enterprises daily, is one of the greatest concerns for the present-day world. While it does not seem possible to avoid emitting waste, allowing the latter spread uncontrollably will finally lead to the pollution of groundwater and the following environmental catastrophe (Mohammadzadeh, Daneshfar, Clark, & Johnson n. d., 1). However, creating a landfill site can be viewed as an adequate solution to the current Ghanaian problems. According to what Taylor and Allen say, Solid wastes, the subject of this chapter, are mainly disposed of to landfill, because landfill is the simplest, cheapest and most cost-effective method of disposing of waste (Taylor & Allen n. d., p. 1). It cannot be argued that the idea of using landfill sites has its problems. As the results of implementations of similar strategies show, when located the wrong way, i.e., too close to the existing river system, landfill sites can cause water pollution and, therefore, spawn several diseases among the population of the state (Kumar, Khare & Alpat 2002).
According to the recent data, the Northern Ghanaian government has already implemented the policy of landfill sites to address the problem of waste disposal; however, the measures taken have led to very dissatisfactory results (Al-Yaqout, Koushki & Hamoda 2002). Due to the incorrect location of the landfill sites, the situation has become even worse landfill sites have started posing a threat to the environment of the state and the health of the people inhabiting it. In his recent article on the results of waste disposal policies in Northern Ghana, Kofi Thompson has made it clear that the location of landfill sites leaves much to be desired. As the journalist reports, being located very close to the adjacent cities, the Achimota landfill has been spreading its ghastly odour (Thompson, 2013, January 15) for months, driving the Accra citizens completely mad.
Unfortunately, the Achimota landfill is not an exception, but, quite, on the contrary, a sad yet recurrent example of the results of landfill site policy implementation in Ghana. The current situation is truly deplorable; due to the wrong location, landfill sites not only fail to serve their basic purpose of protecting the citizens from the outcomes of statewide pollution but also contribute to the latter process, which begs the question concerning the reasonability of landfill sites as a strategy (Mohammadzadeh 2010).
Indeed, when considering the existing options of waste disposal, one must mention other opportunities, such as building modern waste-to-energy plants (Thompson, 2013, January 15). As Thompson explains, waste-to-energy plants introduce a much more reasonable policy of waste disposal, since it finally solves the question of where to store the waste. By allowing eliminating the latter, waste-to-energy plants will help solve several environmental concerns. However, building these plants will take years, whereas the waste disposal issue must be solved immediately (Nas, Key & Isacn 2010). Therefore, landfill sites are going to provide a temporary, yet welcome solution to the problem. While it is necessary to realize that landfill sites also pose a threat to the state environment and that their use must be thought out very well, it is clear that at present, Ghana needs the landfill site principle of waste disposal, since the waste-to-energy plants are yet to be built and tested:
This option is the recommended choice for solid waste disposal for the metropolitan and municipal areas (comprising about 10 cities with populations over 200,000). Landfilling is considered the most feasible option from the point of view of costs and the level of environmental impact. (Mensah & Larbi 2005)
It should be mentioned, though, that a careful and well-thought-out choice of landfill sites location can often help minimize the effects of landfill decomposition and the following effects of the reaction between the waste components and groundwater, as well as soil and, therefore, local flora and fauna (Anggraini & Rahardyan n. d.). The location of landfill sites can be carried out efficiently after a detailed analysis of the types of soil in the specified area, the number of rivers and their location, as well as the analysis of other important factors. The given analysis can be carried out with the help of the ArcGIS software and its ArcMap application:
Landfill siting is a complex process involving the processing of massive amounts of spatial data. Technological development in computer science has introduced geographic information systems (GIS) as an innovative tool in landfill processes [&]. GIS is a digital database management system that is ideal for advanced site-selection studies because it can efficiently store, retrieve, analyze, and display information according to user-defined specifications. (Jayawickrama & Weerasinghe n. d., p. 1)
After analyzing the area in question, i.e., Northern Ghana, one will be able to not only analyze the effects of the current landfill sites location on the Ghanaian environment but also figure out where one can relocate the current landfill sites to improve the existing state of affairs.
Ghana and the problem of waste disposal: the worlds second dirtiest country
As one might have guessed, the problem discussed in the given paper revolves around the current situation concerning the landfill sites in Ghana. According to the existing researches, the problem of waste disposal in Ghana has grown big enough to ignore it any longer. Three years ago, Bozzo commented on the protests raised by the Ghanaian people in response to the government waste disposal policies: The protesters, most of whom were residents of the nearby Accra suburb Agyemankata, were concerned about the landfills health impact, its outdated construction plans and the possibility of displacement (Bozzo, 2010).
It would be wrong to consider the Ghanaian governments actions as a complete failure; even though the political issues in the country are rather complicated, the state government is doing its best to control pollution rates and introduce alternative means of waste disposal. As it has been mentioned above, in addition to landfill sites, the concept of waste-to-energy plants has been introduced, and in several years, the given plants are going to reinvent the waste disposal strategies in Northern Ghana. Yet at present, it is required to address the issue of waste cluttering towns and even major cities, like Accra, the state capital. At the same time, the new locations for landfill sites must be far enough for the waste not to contaminate the water and close enough for the waste disposal services to reach without wasting extra money on additional amounts of fuel.
Therefore, the excuses provided by the Ghanaian government do not make the situation any better. Incompetent waste disposal policies have led to drastic results, and Northern Ghana has gained the status of the second dirtiest county in the world, according to the 2011 accounts of the environmental issues all over the world. Truly, the problem of pollution is not entirely related to waste management issues. As the news reports claim, another basic problem that keeps Ghanaian pollution rates high is the plain fact of toilet deficiency in Accra, the state capital. However, the problem of public toilets is soon overshadowed by the fact that garbage dumpsters are an even less available facility in the country and that the state is cluttered by stinking filth (Mahama 2011, December 3), as Mahama put it.
With that being said, it can be concluded that the current situation in Ghana regarding its landfill sites is critical. By locating the state dumpsters and analyzing their impact on the environment, as well as on the lives of the people whose houses are located in the vicinity, one can figure out if the situation has improved since the last protests against the government policy on waste disposal were voiced, which the ArcMap technology is going to help with.
Hypothesis: by using the ArcGIS and ArcMap technology, one can not only locate the Ghanaian landfill sites efficiently but also comment on the effects of the landfill sites policy adopted by the Ghanaian government.
Defining the problem with the landfill sites, i.e., the reasons for the current landfill sites location to be inappropriate is only half of the task; the other, and by far the most complicated, half concerns the location of the places appropriate for being turned into the Ghanaian sites of waste disposal.
As it has been stressed above, there are many alternative solutions for the Ghanaian waste disposal strategies. However, most of these solutions are either extremely costly or take considerable time to be put into practice, while the Ghanaian government does not seem to have either the vast financial resources for the problem solution or more time to waste, seeing how in Accra, people have already started realizing that the gases emitted by the landfills in the vicinity make their life completely unbearable. It could be argued, though, that the current landfill site location helps the state benefit from saving on waste transportation; however, when considering the costs at which the given strategy comes, one will be able to see distinctly that the losses are much ampler than the saved financial resources.
Thus, it must be admitted that the reasons for the current location of landfill sites do not hold any water. The given paper is going to prove, therefore, that a better location of landfill sites is possible by defining the most reasonable choices of landfill sites location with the help of the ArcGIS system. It is worth noting, though, that the ArcGIS system itself, as well as its ArcMap application, is not going to solve the problem of the Ghanaian landfill site location. Which might seem even more confusing, the ArcGIS program is not going to provide the user with the perfect location for the landfill sites in Northern Ghana, as well as elsewhere in the world. Instead, it will help define the factors that can lead the user to the idea of where the landfill sites should be located. As the existing resources say, the ArcGIS system has already been used for defining the location of landfill sites with relative success: A GIS-based site-selection procedure is potentially useful to manage agricultural NPS pollution through the identification and mapping of sites where the application of animal waste is less likely to produce NPS pollution of riverine flows (Basnet 2001, p. 526).
Therefore, it would be a huge mistake to consider the ArcGis program a quick solution to the problem of landfill site location. The program, rather, provides clues on where the landfill sites can be placed so that the emissions, mainly gases, from the industrial and domestic waste should not reach the cities and pollute the air.
It can be assumed that, by using the ArcGIS software, one can define the key river systems, as well as the road tracks, therefore, specifying the possible transportation issues and the impact that the choice of the location can have on the population of the state. Being well-known for the opportunities that it provides in defining the key characteristics of a specific state or geographic location, the given software will allow for defining such details as the type of soil, the key communication lines, and many more features of Northern Ghana, therefore, helping choose the best suitable location for landfill sites. At present, it is necessary to keep in mind that the distance between the cities and the landfills must be big enough from the waste not to affect the state environment and the health of its citizens, yet close enough for the waste disposal services to be able to reach it within a reasonable amount of time and not to spend most of the earned money on transportation facilities.
Literature Review and Project Description: Adopting GIS Method to Locate Ghanaian Landfill Sites
The given project revolves around the issue of locating the Ghanaian landfill sites. Even though ArcGIS cannot provide its users with the exact answer to the problem mentioned above, it is still evident that, by using the ArcMap technology, one can define the basic features of Northern Ghana and its geography safely and quite precisely.
Therefore, the given project is going to test the efficiency of the ArcGIS program in general and its ArcMap application in particular for defining the key factors that lead to analyzing the Ghanaian landscape to find the best possible location for landfill sites.
The given project is about testing the ArcGIS and ArcMap software as the tool for the efficient solution of geology and geography related problems. While the significance of the environmental and health concerns that Northern Ghana is facing at the moment must not be doubted, the idea of the given dissertation is to prove the viability of ArcGIS and ArcMap, not to solve the situation in Ghana. The location of landfill sites is only the means to prove the viability of ArcGIS as a method of specifying the geological and geographical features of a certain state to handle a specific problem.
The given project is going to touch upon several issues apart from the use of ArcMap and ArcGIS technologies. Among the subjects of the study, such issues as the Ghanaian policies on waste disposal, the features of the ArcGIS 10.1 software, and the environmental concerns related to waste, pollution, and contamination are going to be considered. The focus of the paper, however, will still concern the use of ArcMap technology as the tool for analyzing the specifics of a certain land or site.
It is also crucial that the given paper is going to render the problem of environmental concern in the XXI century. Although the time when people became hyped over an environmental issue, such as the ozone layer holes, rainforest protection, etc., seems to be well over, the process of environmental change is still going on and is already bringing certain results. Therefore, it is important to reconsider the issues raised several decades ago with the help of the newly acquired knowledge and re-evaluate the threat that humankind is facing currently.
With that being said, it can be assumed that the given project is aimed at testing the ArcGIS system as the most efficient method of specifying the features of a certain land or country to use the acquired data for solving a specific problem in a particular state.
The subject of study and the associated issues: Ghana and its policies on waste disposal
As has been explained above, the policies that the Ghanaian government has adopted to address the problem of waste disposal could use a lot of improvement. Although the problem was partially solved and that the landfill sites have been created, recently acquired data shows that street pollution rates and the gases emitted by the landfill sites that have been located in a wrong manner make the situation even worse (Mensah & Larbi 2005).
Therefore, the subject of the study is going to revolve around the identification of Ghanaian landfill sites, as well as the working on the suggestions for better landfill site location. Since at present, the location of the Ghanaian landfill sites leaves much to be desired, it can be assumed that, by analyzing carefully the types of the Ghanaian soil, as well as the identification of the Ghanaian road networks and their further reclassification, one can come up with a better idea of where the landfill can be buried so that the waste would not harm either the environment or the health of the Ghanaian people. Also, the given paper is going to briefly touch upon the Ghanaian current policies in waste disposal together with the factors that have influenced the governments decision on the waste disposal policies, and the means to change the given policy to improve the current state of affairs. As it has been stressed above, the key problem concerning the Ghanaian landfill sites is the inability of the government to provide a decent strategy for locating dumpsters. As a result, the city is getting cluttered with waste, which affects the lives of the Ghanaian population most negatively, leading to a sharp increase in disease and death rates. Therefore, it is crucial to come up with suggestions on an alternate location for the Ghanaian dumpsters.
The last and the most important, the given paper is going to address the role of ArcGIS 10.1 in the location of landfill sites. Even though several programs allow for a careful analysis of a specific state or city, ArcGIS seems the best option. Due to its numerous settings and the opportunities for a high-quality analysis, which ArcGIS provides, the given program can be considered one of the few types of software that truly works for locating landfill sites.
Technical details: ArcGIS 10.1 as the basic tool for acquiring information
As it has been stressed above, the given paper is going to make efficient use of the ArcGIS program to acquire the relevant data and conduct a thorough analysis of the Ghanaian territory to specify the optimum locations for landfill sites. Therefore, a couple of words must be said about ArcGIS.
To start with, it is necessary to stress that the latest version of ArcGIS is going to be used in the given experiment. In contrast to the studies that have been used in the given paper to support the experiment, the given research is going to feature the benefits of using ArcGIS 10.1, while in the papers used for references, ArcGIS 9.0 and ArcGIS 10.0 were used. Even though the 10.1 version does not feature any revolutionary specifics, it has several upgrades that allow for a more detailed analysis of the problem and a better location of various items, such as roads, rivers, etc., which, in its turn, works for a better and a more accurate location of dumpsters in Ghana:
Using ArcGIS Spatial Analyst, geographic information system (GIS) users can create, query, map, and analyze cell-raster data; perform integrated raster/vector analysis; derive new information from existing data; query information across multiple data layers; and fully integrate cell-based raster data with traditional vector data sources. (ArcGIS spatial analyst: Advanced GIS spatial analyst using raster and vector data 2001, p. 1)
Also, it is worth bringing up that three key elements of the program are going to be used in the course of the research, i.e., ArcGIS, ArcMap, and ArcGlobe. While the program was developed so that the user could work with one of the aforementioned elements to create a shapefile, the program interface makes it very easy to switch from one of the windows to another one, which is why each of the elements mentioned above is going to be used in the process of maps creation and their following analysis.
Additional details: considering the issue from an environmental point of view
When it comes to defining the key themes of the given project, the use of ArcGIS technology comes to the fore. However, as it can be seen in the introductory paragraph, the study also revolves around a nonetheless significant issue of environmental pollution, the effects of peoples actions on the state of the environment and the safety of nature, as well as the environmental threats that these actions lead to and the means to avoid the danger.
When considering landfill sites as the method of handling the waste disposal process and controlling the number of toxic fumes emitted by the organic and non-organic waste, one must stress the fact that the landfill sites method is quite a double-sided sword. On the one hand, it does prevent such phenomena as pollution of the streets and contribute to make the city cleaner. Instead of having the streets cluttered with the waste that cannot fit the trashcans anymore, the state authorities and the citizens of the city will be able to enjoy relatively clean streets, while the trash is taken regularly to the dumpsters located on the outskirts of the city or outside its borders. On the other hand, the poor or badly thought-out strategy of landfill site location can happen to be even more harmful than having the streets filled with all kinds of trash. As recent researches show, the radiation and the odor emitted by the landfill that has been placed close enough to the city for the waste disposal services to reach has rather deplorable effects on the health of the population, as well as the environment of the city. According to the case study details, the issue concerned the landfill mines in Bridgeton, MO; due to the complaints of the residents, who reported a nautilus smell coming from the direction in which the landfill site was located, as well as the smoldering that came from the same direction and caused even more anxiety among the population:
The EPAs report said the smoldering has not reached the radioactive material. But neither the state nor the federal government has released updated numbers to show how far away the fire is now. A few months ago it was 1,200 feet away, then in April Missouri Attorney General Chris Koster said 1000 feet. (KSDK 2013, May, 30)
Then again, the issue needs further research that can detect the exact danger that landfill sites pose to the environment and the population of a specific state. As the recent report on the rise in radiation levels made by EPA shows, the news concerning the harmful emissions produced by landfill sites and mines is greatly exaggerated. As the report shows, the alarm sounded on the problem of harmful emissions from landfill sites must be taken with a grain of salt, since the radiation level is too low to be considered as inflicted by landfill mines ((WEIJA) GA SOUTH: youth block landfill site over increased cholera cases, 2013). Therefore, when dealing with the means of defining the best location for landfill sites, one must take their dangers into account, which the ArcGIS tools will supposedly help.
Landfill sites are a major problem not only in Northern Ghana; at some point in their development, most states have encountered or will encounter a similar problem. However, in a time when more environmental pollution means bringing even grander changes to the climate and, therefore, contributing to the approach of global warming. It can be argued that the possible effects of global warming have been somewhat overrated, yet it is clear that environmental pollution must be reduced to the minimum to keep the Earth habitable. With that being said, the environmental issues must be named among the subjects of the given paper.
Literature Review and Project Definition: Locating the Current Ghanaian Solid Waste Sites and Considering Their Possible Relocation
Before the actual exploration of the possible locations for the Ghanaian landfill sites, the identification of the already existing ones will be required. According to the existing evidence, the Ghanaian government solves the problems concerning solid waste disposal in a rather radical manner by merely trying to pile the entire mass of garbage in the remotest corners of the area. It should also be noted that little concerns about the types of waste, the decomposition process of the materials that have been thrown away, or the effects that this decomposition is going to have on people and the environment are rather legitimate.
Therefore, the key goal of the given project is to define the best location possible for the landfill sites in Northern Ghana based on the data acquired with the help of the ArcGIS tools and the analysis of the maps designed in ArcGIS. By taking a closer look at the river system of the state, analyzing its geographical position and other peculiarities, one will be able to come up with a viable solution for the problem in question.
It should be mentioned, though, that the given project has several limitations. To start with, it is important to take into account that the accuracy of the ArcGIS 10.1 is considerably less than one of such programs as Google Earth in that ArcGIS does not allow for an option of street view. Moreover, in ArcGIS, creating three-dimensional models is hardly possible. Therefore, it is worth keeping in mind that, with all its efficiency, ArcGIS can only help show the direction in which the further course of actions will have to be taken.
Implementation plan for the project: the steps to be taken
To achieve tangible progress and conduct an effective study, the author of the given project will have to come up with an elaborate plan and get the priorities in line to come up with a list of steps to be taken. Once an adequate plan of the research is introduced, it will be much easier to achieve its goals.
To start with, it will be required that the map of rivers and roads in Northern Ghana should be analyzed. While the connection between the problem of landfill sites and the river system in Ghana might seem rather far-fetched, it is important to bear in mind that after its decomposition, organic waste
Benefits: testing ArcMap technology and assisting Ghana
When it comes to speaking of the benefits that the given project will hand to the world in general and Northern Ghana in particular, one must mention that the given paper addresses two basic questions. The first one being the problem concerning the Northern Ghanian landfill sites, it is also worth keeping in mind that the given paper also explores the possibilities of the ArcGIS system and one of its most famous programs, ArcGis (Abagale, Mensah & Osei 2012).
Therefore, it can be assumed that the given project has several benefits to be mentioned. To start with, the research on the possibilities of locating the landfill sites in Northern Ghana with the help of the ArcMap software will doubtlessly contribute to the solution of the current problem concerning waste disposal in Ghana. As it has been specified above, the problem has reached drastic proportions and needs an urgent solution.
Second, and most importantly, the given research is going to explore the opportunities that the ArcGIS program opens to its users in terms of analysis of the specific environment, which is going to be used to locate the best possible places for the landfill sites in Northern Ghana. As it has been stressed, the ArcMap is going to be used basically as a tool for collecting the data required for the research and the following analysis. Therefore, it is necessary to make it clear from the very start that the ArcGIS technologies, which will be utilized in the given paper, are merely a tool for acquiring the necessary data. However, as a tool, the ArcGIS and ArcMap
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