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Abstract
The purpose of the abstract is to provide a concise and accurate synopsis of key elements of your dissertation. Include the following information (suggested length: 400 words or less):
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Research topic summary (1-5 sentences)
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Provide a concise summary of your dissertation research topic. Explain the rationale for your study and the gap in the literature or field your dissertation addresses. Indicate your research questions, matching the wording used in your dissertation chapters.
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Research methodology (1-2 sentences)
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Summarize the research methodology used in the study.
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Population and sample (1-2 sentences)
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Describe the population and sample, including high-level demographic information regarding your participant pool. If secondary data was used, describe the data set.
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Data analysis (1-2 sentences)
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Provide a concise summary of your data analysis.
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Findings (1-3 sentences)
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Provide a concise summary of your research findings and conclusion(s). If relevant, you may also briefly note recommended future research associated with your findings.
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Tips for developing a quality abstract
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Keep in mind that the abstract is representative of your work. Researchers will review your abstract to determine whether your dissertation is worthy of reading and relevant to their literature review. Employers may review your abstract to learn more about the nature and quality of your doctoral work. The abstract should therefore represent your most polished and well-written work!
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Guidelines for the development of an abstract are in section 2.04 of the APA Publication Manual, 6th edition.
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References are generally not used in the abstract, as the focus is the study, the research, and the findings.
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Format the abstract as one double-spaced paragraph without an indented first line.
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Do not include headings, bullets, or bold.
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Do not justify the right margin.
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The Abstract page is not numbered, and Abstract does not appear in the Table of Contents.
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Dedication
This page is optional. The dedication is the writers acknowledgment indicating his or her appreciation and respect for significant individuals in the writers life. The dedication is personal; thus, any individuals named are frequently unrelated to the topic of the dissertation.
Typically, the learner dedicates the work to the one or two individuals who instilled in the learner the value of education and the drive to succeed in educational pursuits. Learners often dedicate dissertations to relatives, immediate family, or significant individuals who have supported them or played a role in their lives.
Note: if the Abstract is two pages long, change the page number of the Dedication to iv.
Acknowledgments
The acknowledgments differ from the dedication in one significant way: The acknowledgments recognize individuals who have supported the writers scholarly efforts as they relate to the dissertation or who have held a role in the writers academic career as it relates to the research of the dissertation. This might mean your mentor and committee members, dissertation advisor, online or colloquia faculty, and other support people from _ or other organizations. If you received financial support from fellowships, grants, or other organizational support, it should be noted in this section.
Literature Review
In this chapter, a detailed review of the existing literature was provided. The chapter starts with a description of the methods of research used to obtain peer-reviewed literature. The chapter then provides a detailed review of existing theories. Black psychology theory and Systems Theory were used to support the study. Factors that influence parenting of adolescents, such as culture, social status, gender, level of discipline and academic excellence of a child, religious support, government support, personal relationship between mother and child are also discussed. The chapter provided a synthesis of research findings and a critique of previous research methods then concluded with a summary.
Methods of Searching
The literature review was a critical element of the study. According to Benner et al. (2016), when conducting research, it is important to review findings made by other scholars. The process not only provided background information but also identified gaps in the existing knowledge. Sources used in this chapter were obtained from peer-reviewed journal articles. Universitys library was used to assist to locate journal articles and other sources.
An online search also made it possible to find current articles on the research topic. Key-words such as single parenting, African American mothers, and parenting adolescents, made it possible for the researcher to locate relevant materials for the study. Some of the databases that proved useful included Google Scholar, Journal Store (Jstor), Academic Search, Pro-Quest, and EBSCO Information Services.
The databases were used to locate recently published journal articles about single parenting, especially among African American women. The importance of this study is that it will provide parenting guidelines that can help single African American mothers cope with the various challenges they face.
Theoretical Orientation for the Study
It was necessary to analyze specific theories relevant to this study. According to Brody et al. (2014), theoretical orientation for the study offers a researcher a basis upon which ideas should be developed. Single African American females experience of being mothers to their adolescent sons can effectively be identified by different theories and concepts (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2013). Two theoretical concepts were found to be relevant to the research topic. They include black psychology theory and systems theory. Each theory was analyzed and used to support the study. The primary theoretical implication is to provide a detailed description of the lived experience of the single African American mothers of parenting adolescent sons.
Black Psychology Theory
One of the emerging theories used to describe the African American social setting is the black psychology theory. Elliott et al. (2015), defines black psychology theory as a concept that explains the beliefs, behavior, attitude, interactions, and feelings of the African American (also referred to as Blacks in this chapter). The theory has developed over time, and as observed by Barnett and Scaramella (2013), was based on the social environment of Black Americans.
One of the main strengths of this theory is that it makes it possible to understand the historical injustices that have made most of the African Americans less privileged in the country (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). It also identifies challenges that still make it difficult to eradicate racism. The weakness of this theory is that it ignores challenges that other minority groups face in the country. The theory compares with the system theory in that both of them focus on the social systems and structures of society. However, the black psychology theory specifically focuses on the challenges that African Americans have to face in the United States.
Black psychology theory has been used in this paper to help explain why African Americans are disadvantaged when compared to other races in the United States. Pierre and Jackson (2014) argue that the United States has made impressive steps in the fight against racism. However, a lot still needs to be done to address this vice at school, in the workplace, or various socio-economic and political settings (Jarvis et al., 2013).
Recent studies have found out that Whites are more likely to be favored in the workplace than Blacks are (Haefner, 2014). The same trend where Whites are given preferential treatment is common in institutions of higher education in the country (Haefner, 2014). Such practices deny a section of the society the opportunity to achieve economic progress.
African Americans often find themselves on the defensive whenever the issue of racism emerges. According to Brannon, Markus, and Taylor (2015), American society is still divided along racial lines, with Blacks considered inferior to Whites. The racial division emerged from the history of Africans in America. Most Africans came to the United States during the colonial era as slaves (Emmen et al., 2013).
As Wang and Kenny (2014) note, American society highly cherished the caste system by that time, and it meant that African Americans could not achieve socio-economic and political success through any means, primarily due to their skin pigmentation. When the Emancipation Proclamation was issued in 1863, there was the promise that every American citizen would be free, but the perception towards Black Americans never changed. Slavery was abolished in 1865, several decades after independence.
It took several decades for African American men to gain the right to vote in this country. However, that did not help in countering the negative perception that Whites had towards Blacks (Duffy, Blustein, Diemer, & Autin, 2016). Blacks who emigrated from Africa to the United States since independence did little to change the perceptions that the society had towards them (Percy, Kostere, & Kostere, 2015). Most Blacks were job seekers willing to do anything for the least possible pay. It strengthened the narrative that Black can only be servants (Pauker, Apfelbaum, & Spitzer, 2015). Currently, American society still seems to be segregated along racial lines.
Systems Theory
System Theory, developed by Bertalanffy (1968), is also relevant for the proposed study. According to Bertalanffy (1969), some models, laws, and principles apply to generalized systems, irrespective of the nature of their elements, kind, relations, or forces between them.
A family unit is one example of a system that could be guided by principles, as explained in this theory. According to Brown (2016), every member of the family has a role to play and the experience that one gets largely depends on how well each person accomplishes their responsibilities. Under normal circumstances, it is often expected that every member will meet the expectations of the rest of the family members. When that happens, everyone will be satisfied within the family setting.
In a family-run by a single mother, one must understand the uniqueness of the burden that she has to bear. When both parents are present, there is always a shared responsibility (Bendassolli, 2013). Even if one of the parents is not fully employed, they may offer emotional support to one another as they seek to provide the best environment for their family. For a single mother, the benefit of sharing parenting responsibility is lost (AlYahmady & Alabri, 2013).
It is expected that she will meet all the material needs of the child (Hanson, 2014). Normally, at one moment she may be overwhelmed. She may fail to meet the financial expectations of the child. In other cases, she may not be present to offer the child emotional support and guidance because of the need to work to meet the familys financial needs. Any such failure on the part of the parent, as explained in this theory, may affect the entire family system. As a result, the child may easily engage in socially unacceptable practices (Clinard, 2015). When that happens, the mother may be affected negatively.
Review of the Literature
Parenting is a widely studied topic and some of the concepts that were investigated in this project have been addressed by other scholars. Barnett and Scaramella (2013) explained that socio-economic and political changes in society meant that some realities have changed over the past seven decades for both Whites and Blacks in the United States. A century ago, women in the United States were not allowed to vote, and only a few of them were active in the corporate world (Varner & Mandara, 2013).
However, that has changed. The socio-economic and political changes meant that experiences a single African American woman had when raising a son in 1930 were different from that in 2018 (Williams & Smalls, 2015). These changes mean that revisiting the topic is important to understand the positive steps that have been made and areas that still need the attention of society (Pachankis et al., 2015). The literature review section reviews findings made by other scholars who investigated related topics.
Single Parenting in the United States
According to recent statistics, single parenting is becoming a common phenomenon in the U.S. Williams and Smalls (2015) argued that single parenting may be caused by divorce, separation, incarceration of one of the partners, or death of a partner. According to Irvine et al. (2013), the primary causes of single parenting in the country are divorce and separation of the partners. Barnett and Scaramella (2013) argued that now more than ever, many marriages end up in divorce before their fifth year.
The phenomenon is not unique, but the rate at which American marriages are ending in divorce or separation is concerning, as Barnett and Scaramella (2013) observed. The statistics show that the number of children living with an unmarried mother rose consistently since the 1960s. In 1960, less than 10% of children were raised with unmarried mothers. The number has significantly increased to 24% in 2010 (Blankstein, Noguera, Kelly, & Tutu, 2016).
Whites are the least affected group, although the problem is also becoming prevalent among the White race. In 1960, about nine percent of White children were raised by unmarried mothers as shown in the statistics below. The number has more than doubled to 19% in 2010 (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). Hispanics are also experiencing a similar problem. In 1978, about 18% of Hispanic children were raised by single mothers. The number is expected to increase as cases of divorce are on the rise.
The social problem of single parenting affects African American mothers more than any other population in the United States. Since the 1960s, the number of African American children raised by single mothers has been more than twice the countrys average (Cooper & Norcross, 2016). In 1960, less than 10% of all American children were raised by single mothers. At that time, 20% of African American children were under the care of single mothers (Atzaba-Poria, Deater-Deckard, & Bell, 2014).
In 1990, 54% of African American minors were parented by single mothers. At that time, the countrys single-parent average was 22%. As Leech (2016) explained, the problem is not as prevalent today as it was in the 1990s, but Blacks are still the group most negatively impacted. In 2010, 50% of African American children were parented by single mothers, while the countrys average was 24% (Benner et al., 2016). The prevalence of this problem among African Americans made it necessary to narrow down the study to this group because it is the most impacted.
Studies show that one of the leading causes of divorce and separation in the U.S. is infidelity. According to Stinson (2013), modern technologies, especially the growing popularity of smartphones and other communication gadgets and software have made it easy for couples to trace activities and determine if one is unfaithful. The rate at which men are cheating on their wives has not changed much, according to a study conducted by Nobles (2013). However, it is easier than ever for wives to determine if they are cheating. On the other hand, the rate at which women are cheating on their spouses has increased significantly in the modern society, compared to a century ago (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015).
The emergence of social media platforms is another factor that is straining relationships. According to a report by Brown (2016), social media can be very addictive. Some people cannot spend more than 30 minutes of their free time without visiting Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, and WhatsApp. They are so addicted to social media that they no longer have time for their families (Jeynes, 2015). Traditionally, couples were expected to have family time together after work to discuss fundamental issues, such as the academic progress of children, financial status of the family, challenges the couple encounters, and related topics (Wang & Kenny, 2014).
However, that is no longer the case. After work, many couples spend time on social media sharing with friends and family members. The two may be physically close, but there is no connection because of the time they spend chatting with others miles away. One partner may need the attention of the other, but it may not be easy to get it because of the obsession with social media. Leech (2016) explained that in such instances, a rift will emerge between the couples and they will find it difficult to stay together. The outcome of such undesirable situations is a separation or divorce.
Social networking sites not only distract couples from giving their partners the attention they need but also promote vices dangerous to the unity of a family. According to Haefner (2014), it is easier for one to make sexual advances on a peer after work than when having a face-to-face meeting. Those who are shy find social media a perfect platform for seduction (Cooper & Norcross, 2016). When a partner finds such compromising messages on their partners social media account, the relationship may be strained.
In other cases, a partner may be attracted to or enticed by a peer who reaches out to them through social media. Such cases are common when the romance and attention are lacking in the family. When such individuals realize that someone is willing to give them the attention they need, they can easily compromise their marriage vows (Doody & Noonan, 2013). When infidelity occurs, the fate of the family is uncertain.
The emergence of hook-up sites seeking to connect men and women seeking love or casual relationships has worsened the problem. Ashley Madison, Adult Friend Finder, and Fling.com are some of the popular sites people visit when they realize the romance they need is lacking at home (Hajar, 2016). When a partner starts seeking love and attention from outside the family, chances are high that the relationship may soon end.
The increased incidence of single parenting is often blamed on the empowerment of women. In the past, women were forced to endure physical, emotional, and verbal abuse from their husbands (Stinson, 2013). They had to depend solely on their husbands to provide for their families. The love for their children and the fear of the unknown would make them withstand all the abuses for the sake of having a stable family (Doody & Noonan, 2013).
However, that is no longer the case. Some women can now afford to lead independent lives without the financial support of their husbands. Women are academically empowered and understand their rights in a family setting (Harris, Sutherland, & Hutchinson, 2013). As such, whenever women feel their dignity is compromised and their love is taken for granted, they do not hesitate to move out of the relationship (Ledgerton, 2013). With the current favorable laws that compel men to provide financial support to their children after separation or divorce, the fear of the unknown is always addressed. It means that women no longer fear leading single lives.
The increasing relevance of education and the need for economic empowerment in American society results in some women to disregard the need for life-long partners. The problem is majorly affecting the middle-class (Leech, 2016). These single women spend a lot of time at school, seeking to gain relevant skills that would enable them to achieve success in the corporate world (Doody & Noonan, 2013). Once they start working, they have a focus on achieving career success. They spend most of their time working and amassing wealth. When they are in their early to mid-thirties, they realize they need to have families.
At this stage, single women take different approaches to achieve the goals they desire. Some make a deliberate choice to have children and lead the life of a single mother (Hess & Henig, 2015). They feel that with their financial might, they can support their families without having a male partner. These single women believe that being committed to a partner may limit their ability to advance their careers (Ebert et al., 2015).
They do not want to be controlled by a partner who will demand to know what she is doing in every instance. Another group, as Brown (2016) explained, opts to get married and settle down with a chosen partner. However, along the way, they realize they cannot withstand a life where every action they take is subject to scrutiny. Such individuals quickly find their ways out of their relationships, opting to care for their children as single mothers.
The law is clear about the need for men to support their children, whether after a divorce or when paternity has been established. According to Wang and Kenny (2014), a woman raising a son as a single parent should get regular financial support from the childs father to meet the necessary needs. The problem is that sometimes implementing the law is not easy. Brown (2016) explained that cases have been witnessed where some men disappear, never to be seen again after their divorce.
Others consider resigning from their formal jobs to take manual tasks where it would be difficult to track down their earnings (Milkie, Nomaguchi, & Denny, 2015). Many succeed in avoiding the financial responsibility of caring for their children, especially if the mother is given full custody. In such cases, the responsibility of providing for the children falls on the mother.
The law is expected to protect single mothers by making men financially responsible for their children even after the divorce. Ford and Moore (2013) note that these laws often encourage women to seek divorce when they feel uncomfortable in their marriages. Single mothers suddenly realize the law they expected to protect them is not very effective in doing so (Katz, 2015). They have to budget for the little resources they have to ensure the needs of the family are met. However, the American system is not as favorable to women as it is to men (Williams & Smalls, 2015). Similarly, when the woman is an African American, the experience is worse.
Factors That Define the Parenting Experience
According to Ford and Moore (2013), various factors defined experiences that single African American mothers go through when parenting adolescent sons. However, existing literature does not provide a detailed explanation of the experience of these single mothers of their relationship with their adolescent sons. It is challenging for a single mother to care for an adolescent son alone, even if she is financially empowered. However, it is important to recognize that some single African American mothers go through more traumatizing experiences than White single mothers do (Emmen et al., 2013). In this section, it was necessary to identify specific factors that defined the parenting experience as discussed below.
Culture
Culture is one of the most important factors that define the approach of parenting. As Haefner (2014) explained, the United States is one of the most demographically diverse countries in the world. Institutions, such as technology, schools, workplace environments, and media have tried to break the cultural barrier (Wang & Kenny, 2014). However, Stinson (2013) noted that different social groups have different practices based on their backgrounds.
Culture is a major concern when raising an adolescent son. One of the main concerns is a culture that has been embraced by a majority of Americans that does not encourage parents to discuss issues related to sex with their adolescent children (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). For some, it is a taboo for the two to engage in such conversations (Williams & Smalls, 2015). Although U.S. society is motivated by education to eradicate such beliefs, it is still uncommon to find an African American adolescent son sharing sex-related issues with their mothers. The inability of sons to discuss sex with their mothers may result in youth finding alternative ways of solving their problems.
The best alternative in the absence of a trusted male adult would be peers at school. The problem is that these peers also have no idea how the problem should be addressed (Doody & Noonan, 2013). However, that does not stop peers at school from proposing solutions, some of which may have serious consequences. For instance, a teenager may be lured into acts such as theft, burglary, and robbery to help solve financial problems.
Others may opt to use drugs as a way of overcoming emotional problems at home or school. Wang and Kenny (2014) note that most parents are often in denial when they are informed that their sons are engaged in criminal acts. Others would just pray, hoping for divine intervention to help guide their sons into the right path. When the child is exposed to harm, the mother will be subjected to the trauma of finding a solution to the problem (Tayler & Price, 2016).
It is even more frustrating when these parents realize that problems their children encounter are that which the culture limits them from discussing (Jeynes, 2015). Some mothers are forced to find trusted male adults to address the problem. Emmen et al. (2013) note that knowing the problem that ones child is going through, but lacking the capacity to address it because of cultural limitations, can be irritating and a source of frustration.
Single African American mothers experience of their relationship with their adolescent sons is directly affected by the culture the society embraces. According to Cohn (2016), parents are often discouraged, based on the culture that many have embraced in the country, from discussing the financial challenges they encounter with their children. As such, an adolescent son may not understand the problems that the single mother is going through to meet financial needs. Such sons may be tempted to find ways of addressing their concerns. In such cases, children may seek resolutions without parental approval.
There is always the concern that the child may opt-out of school as a way of lessening the burden. As such, Wang and Kenny (2014) observe that the majority of these single mothers suffer in silence. They go to great lengths just to ensure they meet the needs of their family (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). Sometimes, the son may become very demanding. They want to enjoy the same benefits as their friends, unaware of the challenges their friends encounter.
Some of these demands may affect the relationship between a mother and a son (Leman, 2015). If the sons demands are not met, the son may feel that the mother is not concerned enough to address his needs, just like other parents do (Emmen et al., 2013). On the other hand, if a parent sacrifices other important things to meet that particular need, there is always frustration, especially when the mother has to make extra effort to earn more income for the family.
Social status
Social status is one of the crucial factors that define the parenting experience of single African American mothers caring for their adolescent sons. In American society, the ability of an individual to provide for the family is important (Ford & Moore, 2013). The problem is worsened for those in urban communities, where the cost of living is very expensive (Wang & Kenny, 2014). In wealthier communities, single African American mothers who are financially empowered can meet most of the needs of their children.
Whenever they realize their adolescent sons need a mentor, they can easily make arrangements to ensure they can meet the right people who can guide them through life. Such children, although they lack the direct emotional support of a father, lead a relatively normal life. They feel that their single mother is capable of parenting them and there is always a sense of admiration.
As Stinson (2013) observed, it does not mean all children raised in wealthy neighborhoods are disciplined and successful in their academics. However, they are offered a better opportunity to facilitate their success. The wealthy single mother may have the occasional emotional pain of having to raise the son alone (Spores, 2013). Nevertheless, there is always a sense of pride and satisfaction when they realize that they are succeeding to care for their children without any support. It gives them a sense of overcoming challenges associated with single parenting.
The experience of low-income single mothers is completely different from that of the wealthy. Most low-income mothers have to take several jobs a day to make ends meet (Doody & Noonan, 2013).
They leave early in the morning and come back late at night to ensure that basic needs are met. Snyder (2016) explained that such parents rarely have time to spend with their children. They believe that providing for their families is their primary responsibility, hoping that teachers will help in offering emotional support to their children. In most cases, teachers cant provide emotional support and personal attention to their students, especially in public schools where the population is relatively high and the pay is poor (Jeynes, 2015). Other factors may also impact the experiences of single mothers.
The neighborhood where such families reside also exposes these children to all manner of dangers. Drug trafficking and abuse, trade-in contraband goods, robbery, burglary, and gang-related activities are common in such areas. Adolescent boys are always the worst affected groups by such gang-related crime (Ford & Moore, 2013). When adolescent boys lack the fatherly guidance they need and are constantly strained financially, they find solace in gangs.
Adolescents may begin abusing and smuggling drugs without the knowledge of their parents (Elish-Piper, 2013). If interventions are not made, they may join dangerous criminal gangs, committing felonies within the neighborhood (Williams & Smalls, 2015).
It is disheartening for a single mother, working for over 13 hours a day to provide for the family, to realize that the son she cares for so much is now engaged in criminal activities. The problem is that some gangs prohibit their members from leaving or betraying the group. It means that once an adolescent becomes a member, their life, and that of the loved ones depend on the adolescents commitment to the gang (Wang & Kenny, 2014). They cannot leave the group unless the youth is arrested for crimes committed to avoiding the wrath of the gang. Gang involvement may be a poverty factor.
African Americans are the worst affected by the problem of poverty. Leech (2016) argued the history of the U.S. has always put African Americans at a position of disadvantage. Even after the abolition of the slave trade and slavery, African Americans have never enjoyed socio-economic and political freedom (Price & Tayler, 2015). Disparities in education is a socio-economic factor.
Some of the best educational institutions in the U.S. give priority to Whites over any other race because of the problem of racism that has remained persistent in society. According to Brown (2016), the level and q
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