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Introduction
Historically, the presence of the United States in the Middle East was based on safeguarding its national security interests. According to the CATO Institute, the American role in the region has been based on; supply of oil and natural resources, limiting the proliferation of nuclear weapons and limiting the domination of any power in the region. In an effort to accomplish these objectives, the United States has established a variety of informal security alliances with several countries in the region[1]. Past presidents have also played a significant role in the containment of conflicts in the Middle East. During President Clinton and Bushs tenures, the government concentrated on promoting peace between the Israelis and the Palestinians.
The two presidents believed that safeguarding peace in the two nations would contain the radical forces and eliminate the anti-American campaigns that were on the rise. After the 9/11 terrorist attack on American soil, there was a shift in the use of diplomatic measures to ensure peace in the region. Specifically, President George Bushs administration employed military power to safeguard peace in the Middle East and ensure that American citizens were safe in their country.
In reference to Modigs, there are variations in the national interests of the United States in different countries[2]. While the American foreign policy toward Israel is primarily based on security issues, its role in Arab nations such as Qatar is based on oil trade. Moreover, there have been variations on the impacts of the American foreign policy in the Middle East. Such variations are dependent on the level of compliance that the nations exhibit in regard to adhering to the demands of the United States. A country such as Iran, for example, has been deemed uncooperative due to its failure to cease nuclear power projects.
According to the CATO Institute, the American foreign affairs in the Middle East can only be assessed effectively by focusing on individual nations [3]. Moreover, it is important to analyze the nature of foreign policies after the Cold War and the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Similarly, Blanchard et al. agree that that the Middle East nations benefit unequally from the American foreign policies [4]. America has close ties with Jordan, Israel, and Egypt, and hence the countries receive billions of dollars annually in the form of aid. Furthermore, the CATO Institute notes that the policies are not only restricted to financial aid but also military and economic benefits [5].
However, the foreign affairs of the United States in the Middle East are not always positive. An example is hostility from some of the countries due to the support of Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War. Such hostility predisposed America to terrorist attacks and limited its supremacy in the region. In addition, Blanchard et al. identify various American foreign policy objectives in the Middle East and they include; eliminating conflicts between nations, meeting the demand for energy, promoting access to US military facilities in countries such as Qatar, eliminating the proliferation of nuclear power and terrorist activities, and promoting human rights and democracy in the region[6]. Therefore, the current paper will attempt to answer the following research question:
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Has the American foreign policy toward the Middle East been successful in improving the relations between the two regions?
History of the American foreign affairs in the Middle East
In reference to Jacobs, the United States had limited interaction with the Middle East, and the foreign policy was not well defined before the Cold War [7]. However, the two regions still had economic ties relating to the import and export of various products. In the 1850s, America primarily traded with the Persian Empire with the aim of developing an economic treaty. However, the commercial ties between the two nations were limited, and the Persian Empire had reservations concerning the American political and economic ideologies. Thus, the local populations were opposed to the presence of the United States in the region.
As a result, economic ties diminished in the next four decades. Modigs explains that the mid-1800 was characterized by the discovery that the Western nations needed to enhance their relations with the Middle East with the aim of safeguarding the supply of energy[8]. However, such discoveries were limited by the proximity of the Middle East to the Soviet Union. Jacobs indicates that the United States limited involvement in the Middle East before the Second World War was based on the notion that the region was dominated by Great Britain [9]. Additionally, many parties had declared their interest in the Middle East, and the involvement of the United States would have created conflicts. These parties included the Zionists and other military organizations. Modigs reports that the end of the Second World War led to America, discovering the value of the energy sources in the Middle East[10].
The United States started plans to establish and strengthen its foreign policy toward the region. Moreover, America recognized the importance of energy in preventing future conflicts as a trade would enhance the economic stability of the poor nations. In summary, the end of World War II formed the basis for the establishment of close ties between the United States and the Middle East. Consequently, the foreign policy was to focus on the provision of energy, prevention of Arab-Israel conflicts, and diminishing the strength of the Soviet Union, which was a threat to the Western Powers.
During the Cold War, America did not take into account issues relating to democracy when supporting the Arab nations. Halabi notes that after the cold war, the United States was interested in restoring democracy in the Middle East [11].
In addition, the US wanted to promote the balance of power and prevent the rise of dominant nations. In regard to the support for Israel, America wanted to protect the nation from conquest by the Soviet Union, guarantee energy supply, and limit authoritarianism. The relations between the United States and the Middle East were further strengthened in 1988 during President George Bushs administration. The government introduced a National Security Strategy that was aimed at promoting stability and security in the Middle East. Moreover, the American government played a vital role in reconciling nations that were in conflict. President George Bush emphasized the need to maintain oil trade between the two nations and diminish the political and military turmoil in Israel and Palestine. In reference to Jacobs, the foreign policy during the 1980s was aimed at ensuring the continuous supply of oil to the United Stated and safeguarding stability in petroleum prices [12].
In the aftermath of the Gulf War, the United States enhanced its presence in the Middle East to promote regional security. Delacour indicates that the National Security Strategy (NSS) was transformed after 1991 due to the fall of the Soviet Union[13]. America recognized the formation of new world order as the Soviet Union was no longer a threat. The new strategy was based on the establishment of military bases and naval presence in the region. In reference to Jacobs, Bill Clintons administration played a significant role in promoting democracy and human rights in the Middle East [14].
The Religious Persecution Act of 1990 and the Leahy Amendment to the Defense Appropriation Act in 1998 provide examples of the level of determination that the United States had in promoting democracy in the Middle East. The United States human rights clause in the foreign policy toward the Middle East focused on the plight of women and children. This is because the governments of the various Arab States did very little to protect the women and children. Delacour acknowledges that the foreign policies based on the promotion of democracy and human rights brought about significant transformations in the Middle East, and the role of women in the society were slowly being recognized[15].
Halabi acknowledges the significant role played by America in the Israeli-Palestinian peace process[16]. In 1991, President Bush senior organized the Madrid Conference in Spain to start the peace process between the two nations. The Soviet Union, Jordan, Lebanon, and Libya were included in the meeting. Delacour notes that the conference led to the creation of the Oslo Accord, which stipulated that the two nations would back the peace campaigns[17].
During President Clintons tenure, there was another peacekeeping conference held at Camp David. However, the conference was not as successful as the two nations refused to adhere to the peace accord. According to Halabi, the main issues discussed during the meeting at Camp David included; the fate of Palestinian refugees in Israel and the Jews living in the Arab nations[18]. The failure of the negotiations also resulted in the election of Ariel Sharon as the Prime Minister of Israel in 2001. Moreover, more uprisings were reported in Palestine, and there was an upsurge of terrorism in Israel. Blanchard et al. indicate that the failure of the Camp David talks and the resulting uprisings was an indication that the United States would experience challenges in maintaining a central role in Middle East affairs[19].
The challenges would affect the nation as a military authority and promoter of democracy. Furthermore, the 9/11 terrorist attacks provided more evidence that the role of the United States in the Middle East had to change.
US foreign affairs in the Middle East after 9/11
Mahapatra indicates that the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks elicited changes in the United States foreign policies in the Middle East and other foreign nations [20]. Immediately after the attack, America launched wars in Iraq and Afghanistan to weaken the Al-Qaeda terror group. Additionally, the United States embarked on counter-terrorism efforts throughout the Middle East. However, Mahapatra notes that the policy changes were triggered by the emotions resulting from the death of American citizens [21]. The foreign policy changed from the promotion of peace to the launch of the war against the Taliban government. Moreover, the United States increased its military budget and presence in the naval bases in Qatar. According to Halabi, the terrorist attacks on the twin towers forced the American political actors to discuss alternative foreign policies [22].
The Secretary of State Collin Powell demanded the nation to continue with the peace and diplomacy affairs in the region. He noted that maintaining good relations with the countries in the Middle East would promote Israeli-Palestinian negotiations. Additionally, the United States would be able to eliminate the anti-American voices and gain support for its planned counter-terrorism campaigns. Particularly, the Secretary of State was against the idea of launching a war and requested the European Union, United Nations, and Russia to support his cause. On March 28, 2002, Prince Abdullah proposed the final statement agreement during the Beirut Summit. Powell pledged his support for the initiative, whose role was to promote peace between the Arab nations. In reference to Looney, the initiative stipulated that the Arab League nations would negotiate with Israel for peace[23].
In return, Israel was expected to withdraw its forces from all its conquests. Additionally, Palestine was to be an independent state. During the discussions, America was allowed to unveil its military power against Iran and Iraq in an effort to promote peace and democracy. The only way that America would ensure Israeli-Palestine peace would be through the creation of democratic nations across the region.
Similarly, Looney acknowledges that the 9/11 attacks demanded a change in the American foreign policy in the Middle East [24]. These attacks forced America to question the previous peace and democracy policy. It was clear that non-state actors such as the Al-Qaida were a threat to American peace. On the one hand, America was worried that attempting to promote democracy would subject it to more terrorist attacks and lead to the creation of more anti-American movements. On the other hand, launching a war would affect the supply of energy from the Middle East. Although the United States had already launched the war in Afghanistan by this time, some policymakers argued that promoting democracy was the only way to prevent future attacks. Halabi notes that the political actors suggested the participation-moderation policy[25].
America implemented the policy, and it stated that the country would participate in promoting democracy in the region and discourage the nations from extremism and terrorism. During President George Bushs regime, the foreign policy dictated that peace in the Middle East was associated with American security. Moreover, American rallied some of the nations in the region to support its cause in diminishing the power of the Taliban group. The US military base in Qatar was crucial to the war against the AL-Qaeda, and it safeguarded the relations between America and Qatar. Looney indicates that the Middle East Partnership Initiative (MEPI), established in 2002, ensured that more funds were allocated to the peace initiatives in the Middle East[26]. Moreover, the Broader Middle and North Africa (BMENA) Partnership Initiative established during the G8 summit in 2004 extended the peace initiatives to Pakistani and Afghanistan. In defending the invasion of Iraq in 2003, America argued that it would enable peace to prevail in both nations. It would also provide evidence that America was dominant in the region and enhance its counter-terrorism initiatives.
During Obamas administration, the foreign policy was focused on ending the Iraq war and eliminating terrorist groups in the region. According to Indyk, Kenneth, and OHanlon, foreign affairs during Obamas tenure were not so different from other regimes [27].
The current foreign policy is aimed at reconciling the relations between America and foreign nations. In respect to the Middle East, the US government has dedicated finances to assist Afghanistan in developing its economy. Another major role of America in the Middle East has been to pressure Iran to stop nuclear proliferation. America believes that nuclear programs are a threat to Israel and promote terrorism. Thus, more strict regulations have been set by the government in an attempt to eliminate the nuclear program. Looney indicates that the US is still dependent on the Middle East for energy security, and this justifies its continuous presence in the region [28]. However, Indyk et al. note that the Obama administration has been criticized for attempting a balancing act in its relations with the Middle East[29].
The administration has also been condemned due to its inability to produce clear outcomes in the Middle East and disregarding the previous foreign policies. Despite such criticism, the United States presence in the region has significantly weakened the AL Qaeda and employed harsh sanctions on Iran. The country has also managed to withdraw its troops from Afghanistan and create trade agreements with Saudi Arabia, UAE, and Qatar. The US-Palestine relations have continued to worsen, and the US has failed to end conflicts between Israel and Palestine.
Blanchard et al. note that the relations between the US and the Middle East were greatly affected by the recent political changes and unrests throughout the Arab nations[30]. The changes in government and the increasing anti-American campaigns are likely to pose challenges to the American peacekeeping and human rights initiatives in the region. However, Looney notes that such initiatives were also challenging prior to the Arab Spring. Particularly, the counter-terrorism and nuclear proliferation initiatives were faced with difficulties as the leaders refused to cooperate with the United States[31].
Moreover, Iran and Iraq governments refused to cooperate in the promotion of human rights freedom to all individuals in the population. Blanchard et al. indicate that the attempt by the United States to provide military assistant to some nations in an effort to quell internal conflicts was also a challenge[32].
An example is the failure of the United States to promote the relations between Israel and Saudi Arabia. While the two nations shared a common enemy (Iran), they were also uneasy about each other with regard to the American policy. Furthermore, the withdrawal of the US troops in the region posed challenges to the allies in the Gulf as they had enjoyed several decades of military presence in the region. As a result of the economic challenges facing the United States, it is unlikely that it will promote regional stability after the uprising. Currently, Congress is facing challenges in determining the policies that are likely to work after the Arab springs. In reference to Blanchard et al., the foreign affairs of the United States can only be understood by assessing its foreign policies toward the individual nations in the Middle East[33]. Thus, the following section focuses on US foreign policies toward some of the nations in the Middle East.
American affairs in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)
These countries include; the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, and Bahrain[34]. The American foreign policy toward the GCC encompasses five issues; supply of energy, counter-terrorism efforts, security, and the promotion of peace and stability. The relations between the two regions have been in existence since the 1970s, and America has continued to import petroleum from the region for many decades. In reference to Blanchard et al., the relations have not been so easy because the US has been constantly faced with challenges relating to the enhancement of democracy and human rights, security, and religious freedom[35].
While some of the GCC nations have employed democratic politics, others are still ruled by unelected hereditary kings who form dictatorial nations. During the 2011 Arab Springs, the US-GCC relations were affected due to security challenges. Looney reports that the presence of the United States in the GCC has been based on its geographical location. Notably, the region has the largest oil reserve in the world [36]. Thus, the major aim of American foreign affairs in the region is to safeguard it as a source of energy. Moreover, the increased demand for oil and natural resources in the United States is an indication that the country will continue to enhance its relations with the GCC.
Blanchard et al. indicate that the presence of the US in the region has been aimed at providing security and ensuring that the region is stable[37]. America also needs GCC in an effort to balance the political and economic issues in Iran and Iraq. The GCC countries have also benefited from Americas presence in the region. Looney argues that the United States has enhanced the defense of the GCC region through military support over the decades [38].
As a result, America has been the most influential security partner in the region. In the past, the US has deployed its military to quell conflicts in the region. Moreover, the country participates in training the GCC armed forces and provides state of the art weaponry and defense systems. However, Blanchard et al. note that the transformations in the current geopolitical and economic issues in the region are slowly changing the relations between America and the Gulf nations[39].
As a result, the nation is in the process of reconsidering the architecture of its foreign policy toward the GCC. The diplomatic influence of the United States in the region has encouraged some of the GCC nations such as Qatar to participate in international diplomatic issues. Saudi Arabia has been known for its global peace initiatives and has greatly focused on foreign investment. However, Looney argues that the increasing influence of the GCC nations in international affairs may render their relations with America redundant[40]. Moreover, the rise of the Gulf monarchies is likely to diminish the role of America in promoting regional stability in the Middle East. El-Katiri also reports that the GCC nations seem to be concentrating more on their relations with China than America [41]. Although such diversifications have negative implications for America, there is a possibility of including more nations in the security initiatives in the Middle East and hence enhancing peace and stability.
In reference to El-Katiri, the presence of the US in the GCC ensured that the countries were unscathed following the Arab Spring [42]. However, Bahrain was affected by the revolutions resulting in instability and threats to the regime in power. Although Saudi Arabia was affected by limited domestic conflicts, they were quelled before their impacts became catastrophic. The demonstrations held in the region were aimed at ending corruption and promoting democracy in political activities. Blanchard et al. recognize the fact that the presence of the US military bases played a role in preventing extreme uprisings like those reported in Egypt and Syria[43].
Despite the conflicts between the people and the GCC governments, the US focuses on its ability to achieve its objectives in the region. Particularly, the nation seems more concerned about ensuring a stable supply of oil and natural resources from the Gulf than quelling conflicts. The presence of bilateral defense treaties with the GCC ensures that America supports its security initiatives in Afghanistan. Thus, it is unlikely that the United States would want the relations between the two regions to deteriorate. According to El-Katiri, financially stable GCC nations such as the UAE also strive to maintain good relations with the US in an effort to secure themselves against external threats by Iran and Iraq [44].
As a result, the US sells state of the art missile defense systems to the UAE. Furthermore, Bahrain and Kuwait are also beneficial to America as Non-North Atlantic Treaty Organization Allies (MNNA). Even though the Obama administration withdrew military forces from Iraq, there are still thousands of military personnel in the GCC. Blanchard et al. report that 23,000 US officers are present in Kuwait and approximately 3000 in UAE[45]. Moreover, Qatar has 7000 US military personnel, while 5000 forces are in Bahrain. Conversely, the number of American forces in Oman and Saudi Arabia are relatively small. While the forces are an indication of the importance of the region to the United States, they also play a role in restraining Iran.
US foreign affairs in Yemen and Turkey
According to Looney, the American foreign policy toward Yemen has faced challenges due to the political and economic crisis in the region [46]. Notably, previous US governments have been grappled with the establishment of an integrated approach toward the nation. There are two major reasons why the United States has tried to foster its relations and presence in Yemen; to promote political and economic stability and to prevent the domination of the Al-Qaeda group in the region. However, the possibility that Yemen government could fail and predispose the people to the economic turmoil is a challenge to the US In reference to Sharp, policymakers in the United States have been faced with difficulties in determining the affairs to engage in due to the possibility of collapse [47].
Despite these hurdles, the foreign affairs of the US in Yemen are based on the prevention of terrorist attacks, promoting counter-terrorism initiatives, and the elimination of the Al-Qaeda group. Looney notes that Yemen has been faced with security challenges and hence the need for the US presence in the nation [48]. However, Sharp argues that American foreign affairs should focus on dealing with the causes of instability [49]. Once the country deals with the instability issues, it will be able to foster security. There are several reasons why the Yemen economy has been collapsing in the past; corruption, poverty and unemployment, and lack of resources. Furthermore, the majority of the citizens of Yemen have been living below the poverty line. Looney notes that the relations between Yemen and the US have improved greatly during the Obama administration as Congress has been in the process of changing the foreign policy toward the Arab nations[50].
Despite these improvements, Yemen has failed to cooperate with America in regard to counter-terrorism initiatives. Sharp also states that the US provides security and military support to the nation[51]. The country also provides sophisticated military weaponry to Yemen in an effort to promote security. The two countries have an End-Use Monitoring Agreement that hinders the misuse and the resale of the weaponry.
Lastly, the United States has, in the past, provided financial assistance worth 120 million dollars annually for humanitarian purposes[52]. The support is crucial to the promotion of the living conditions of the citizens and the enhancement of the relations between the two countries. The United States Department of State indicates that the nation has been fostering job creating for Yemen youths through the Yemeni-endorsed Mutual Accountability Framework [53]. America also addresses the healthcare challenges in Yemen through the financing of the healthcare system. In summary, the foreign affairs of the US in Yemen are focused on the enhancement of political, social, security, and economic stability.
The American foreign affairs in Turkey date back to 1831 during the Ottoman Empire[54]. However, diplomatic relations were established in 1927. The interaction between the two nations is based on mutual interests. Notably, the US foreign affairs in Turkey are aimed at promoting stability and security, prevention of terrorism, and enhancement of counter-terrorism initiatives. Albright, Hadley, and Cook note that the policy is majorly based on security aid [55]. The provision of security is aimed at promoting Turkish-Afghanistan relations and safeguarding the role of the Turkish army in NATO. Moreover, the provision of American security to Turkey ensures that its borders are safe and secure. Looney also notes that the US has played an instrumental role in funding civil rights and human rights organizations in Turkey[56].
The Framework for Strategic Economic and Commercial Cooperation (FSECC) was formed to stimulate economic ties between the two states. In 2014, the trade between the two countries amounted to about 20 billion dollars. Particularly, America exports several commodities to Turkey; steel, aircraft, apparel, and machinery. Moreover, the nation imports agricultural yields, metal, and cars from Turkey. Albright, Hadley, and Cook recommend the introduction of a new partnership agreement following changes in the dynamism of the Middle East [57]. In comparison to other nations in the Middle East, America seems to have more interactions with Turkey. Perhaps this is because the stability and economic growth in Turkey have been beneficial to the US.
US foreign affairs in Iran and Iraq
Looney notes that American foreign affairs in Iran were affected by the 1979 Islamic revolt [58]. Prior to this era, the two nations regularly interacted, especially during the Second World War, when Iran played a major role in the transportation of weaponry. Following the cold war, Iran benefited from military and economic support from America. Moreover, the US played a significant role in helping Iran develop technologies that enhanced the exploration and supply of oil in the country. Currently, the relations between America and Iran are almost non-existence. The cause of withered relations is the nuclear proliferation program. The United States continues to accuse Iran of developing a nuclear program in secret in an effort to acquire nuclear energy. However, Iran defends the program indicating that it is peaceful and not meant for any nuclear attacks. Blanchard et al. indicate that the United States accused Iran of failing to follow the international guidelines that relate to nuclear proliferation[59].
Moreover, Iran seems to support global terrorist activities, which has further aggravated the relations between the two countries. According to the United States, Iran played a significant role in support of Al-Qaeda and is believed to have participated in the planning of the 9/11 terrorist attacks in America. Additionally, the country is accused of training and providing weaponry to the Hamas and Hezbollah terror groups. The Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC) is also viewed as a threat to international peace. In summary, the interactions between the two nations are minimal, and Obamas call to sanction the nation over the nuclear program has further worsened the relations.
The withdrawal of the American forces from Iraq marked the beginning of a democratic relationship between the two nations[60]. America is in the process of assisting Iraq to regain stability after a long period of war. Currently, the two nations are partners with regard to the promotion of peace and democracy in the region. The US played a significant role in the formation of an operative legislature and improving the nations economy. In addition, the US-Iraq Strategic Framework gives America the opportunity to offer security assistance to the country. The framework has also been critical in reconciling the two nations after a period of war and dealing with judicial enforcement efforts in the nation. Looney indicates that the United States has, in the past, provided large-scale infrastructure to the region [61].
Currently, America is more interested in supporting the vul
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