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Abstract
To investigate the experiences of single African American mothers and their relationships with their adolescent sons, I employed a generic qualitative design in the study. My purpose was to address a gap in the literature by providing a deeper understanding of single African American womens experiences as mothers of adolescent sons, including their interactions with the young men. These experiences included the way in which these mothers developed positive relationships with their sons over time. In this study, face-to-face interviewswere held to collect data from the eight participantswho lived in a suburban area and were between the ages of 30 and 55.
Data were analyzed using thematic analysis with inductive coding. Iemployed the following research question to guide the process of data collection and analysis to answer the research question, How do single African American mothers experience their relationship with their adolescent sons? Four themes were found in the data:
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the mother-son bond,
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perceptions of parental roles and responsibilities,
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emotional challenges, and
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racism and discrimination.
Ifound thatthe African American mothers in the study developed a close and affectionate relationship with their sons. Despite the absence of the sons fathers, the women were dedicated and committed to their roles and responsibilities and explained that they lived in constant fear that their sons might be harmed or even killed by the police.
The participants attempted to address these concerns by educating their sons about anti-violence ethical-moral standards, diversity, and survival instructions if they were stopped by a police officer while driving their car. The single mothers also discussed their continuous efforts to protect their sons from racism and discrimination.Recommendations arefor future scholars to focus on the experiences of adolescent sons raised by single mothers and gather data on this phenomenon from the perspectives of the sons.
Dedication
Acknowledgments.
Table of Contents
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Acknowledgments
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List of Tables
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Chapter 1. Introduction
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Background of the Study
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Need for the Study
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Purpose of the Study
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Significance of the Study
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Research Question
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Definition of Terms
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Research Design
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Assumptions and Limitations
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Assumptions
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Limitations
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Organization of the Remainder of the Study
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Chapter 2. Literature Review
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Methods of Searching
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Theoretical Orientation for the Study
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Review of the Literature
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Synthesis of the Research Findings
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Critique of Previous Research Methods
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Summary
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Chapter 3. Methodology
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Purpose of the Study
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Research Question
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Research Design
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Target Population and Sample
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Population
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Sample
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Procedures
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Participant Selection
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Protection of Participants
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Data Collection
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Data Analysis
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Instruments
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The Role of the Researcher
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Guiding Interview Questions
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Ethical Considerations
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Summary
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Chapter 4. Presentation of the Data
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Introduction: The Study and the Researcher
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Description of the Sample
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Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis
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Presentation of Data and Results of the Analysis
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Summary
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Chapter 5. Discussion, Implications, Recommendations
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Summary of the Results
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Discussion of the Results
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Conclusions Based on the Result
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Comparison of Findings With Theoretical Framework and Previous Literature
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Interpretation of the Findings
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Limitatations
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Implications for Practice
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Recommendations for Further Research
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Conclusion
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References
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Statement of Original Work
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Appendix A. Interview Questions
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Appendix B. Demographic Questionnaire
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Appendix C. Recrutment Flyer
List of Tables
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Table 1. Description of Sample
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Table 2. Patterns
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Table 3. Themes
Introduction
The research topic for this study dealt with the experiences of single African American mothers relationships with their sons. The study was conducted using a qualitative approach. Chapter 1 consists of the background of the study, need for the study, purpose, and significance of the study. Also presented are the research questions, research design, definitions, limitations and assumptions of the study, and organization of the remainder of the study.
Background of the Study
Single parenting and its impact on parents and children is a topic of interest in the field of psychology. According to Wu, Appleman, Salazar, and Ong (2015), various factors such as divorce, separation, having a child out of wedlock, and death are among the causes of single parenting in the country. Another factor is lack of preparedness (Cohn, 2016), and as a result, socio-emotional and economic burdens emerge (S. Snyder, 2016).
Maynard, Salas-Wright, and Vaughn (2015) believed that single parenting is likely to become more common for women as they continue to achieve economic independence. Economic dependence is one of the primary reasons women do not divorce or separate from their partners, despite a dispirited relationship (Maudry-Beverley, 2014). These results have been shaped by the economic impact of gender equality. In attempting to understand the phenomenon of mothering as a single parent, it was also important to understand the social issues that influenced it.
Married women may feel as though it is crucial to walk out of their marriages, even though this means they will raise their children alone. In most cases, it is often too late to reverse the situation, especially when the separation leads to divorce, and the divorce process is complete (Benner, Boyle, & Sadler, 2016). However, they soon realize the responsibility to raise their children as a single parent was not as easy as they thought. Formerly married women may find themselves in a situation they had not imagined before. Findings of this study may be helpful to married women who may be considering a divorce. It is important for them to have this knowledge before separating so they can avoid the unnecessary pain and challenges of parenting a child alone.
Single parenting is increasingly becoming a common phenomenon in the United Statesfor, according to Elliott, Powell, and Brenton (2013), recent statistics showed that single parents raise about 50%of African American children. The study also indicated that 70% of single parents were mothers. Johnsen and Friborg (2015) stated that many single mothers are forced to raise their children without the emotional and financial support from male partners who fathered these children.
Taking care of the familys financial needs is a challenging task, but G. Williams and Smalls (2015) explained that parenting goes beyond that. Parenting also entails understanding the unique needs of ones children and addressing them in the best way possible. The purpose of this dissertation was to chronicle the experiences of single African American mothers relationships with their adolescent sons.
One major challenge of single parenting is raising adolescents because,according to Leech (2016), adolescence is a very sensitive stage in their development. Parenting a teenage son as a single mother can be overwhelming. While financial needs may not be a problem, there is a lack of socio-emotional preparedness that is part the phenomenon (Cohn, 2016; S. Snyder, 2016). At this stage, children are trying to understand their personalities in the path toward adulthood. Even if the experience of parenting the child had been enjoyable thus far, things are likely to change at this sensitive stage of development. There are various reasons for the change in the relationship.
The way parents experience their relationships with their children may depend on many factors, one of which is the availability of a partner to share the responsibility. Ebert et al. (2015) opined that it is the desire of people to have a normal family system in which both parents are involved in co-parenting. However, for various reasons, one parent may be forced to care for a child alone. Slonim (2014) stated that when a mother has to bring up a child without the support of a partner, the socioeconomic pressure can be overwhelming. Such a parent will not only be expected to provide for the economic needs of the child, but also the emotional and social needs.
Slonim (2014) argued that the joy of being a parent can be lost because of the pain and frustration that one has to go through to ensure meeting childrens needs. Economic factors such as the high cost of living forces some low-income earners to take on two or three jobs to stay within a budget (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). In the case of single female parents, there may be a very limited time during the day and evening to guide theirchildrens social and emotional development. These experiences may affect the relationship between single mothers and their children. I became interested in this topic because of the complexity of the mother-child relationship within this context.
The phenomenon was of special interest to me because of several factors. Within the community where I live, single parenting has become common, and statistics show that it is likely to become worse (Leech, 2016). Based on personal experiences, I have witnessed the emotional pain single mothers experience when caring for their adolescent sons without the support of their partners. Some mothers consider taking their own lives, which may indicate the intensity of the unpleasant experiences caring for these children (Leech, 2016). Others opt to take their children to their grandparents to help them with parenting.
Leman (2015) explained that a single mother may consider abandoning her family becauseshe is no longer able to withstand the pressure. Some mothers who have not had the experience of parenting an adolescent alone feel they can easily overcome the challenge (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). Those same issues may not apply to married women.
Single African American mothers in the United States encounter socioeconomic challenges; Barnett and Scaramella (2013) investigating the socioeconomic challenges of African Americans in the United States through the lens of Black psychology theory.There is a distinction between being a single mother and a single African American mother (Barnett & Scaramella, 2013). In order for me to identify the challenges these women encounter when parenting adolescent sons, it was critical that I define the experiences of these single African American mothers.Some single mothers are often overwhelmed by the challenges of parenting their adolescent sons.
They abandon their parenting responsibilities andcan only hope that meeting their financial needs is enough so that teachers, close relatives, and other members of society will address any other needs. Findings from this study may be used to identify ways in which single African American mothers can successfully parent their adolescent sons despite the expected challenges.
Need for the Study
There was a gap in the literature on the subject of single African American mothers who parent adolescent sons. The studies dealt withthe experiences of a single mother, but they did not specifically provide enough details about the experience of single African American mothers. The study was needed since thestudies that were reviewed did not completely address the experiences of single African American mothers who were raising adolescent sons.
Finding appropriate ways to improve the experience of these parents may be necessary as the problem becomes more prevalent among the targeted group (Cohn, 2016). Past studies explored possible causes of single parenting, the socioeconomic impact, and how the affected individuals dealt with their situation (Weinrath, Donatelli, & Murchison, 2016), but did not specifically address single African American mothers.
The statistics showed that the problem of single parenting is more common among African American females than among White females (Evans, 2014). According to Irvine, Drew, and Sainsbury (2013), studies indicated that over 25% of African American females between the ages of 22 and 44 were single mothers, while only 9% of White females were single mothers (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). However, these studies did not address African American mothers experience of relationships with their adolescent sons in these relationships dynamics. The findings from this dissertation study may fill a gap in the literature.
Previous studies have discussed the way these parents cope with various socioeconomic and emotional challenges when parenting their adolescent sons (Evans, 2014; Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). These studies show that the majority of single mothers preferred having girls instead of boys (Evans, 2014). Researchers have noted that parents may not only worsen relationships but also deny adolescents the affection they needed from the parent.
Other single mothers believed it was more challenging to raise adolescent boys because of their rebellious nature (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). Another challenge that single mothers face while parenting adolescent sons is the inability to offer them advice based on personal experience. As such, they prefer parenting adolescent girls to adolescent boys (Evans, 2014). They feel that they can offer the girls guidance based on their own experiences as young girls when they were a similar age. M. Cooper and Norcross (2016) argued the lack of parenting skills may aggravate the problems that single mothers face.
While conducting the literature review, I found that scant research has been conducted that addresses the African American mothers experience of relationships with their adolescent sons in these relationships dynamics. Based on the findings of this study, it may be possible to fill a gap in professional knowledge by informing the field of psychology with data from the dissertation. Information on the unique emotional challenges identified in this study can be critical to counselors whose services are needed by these single mothers. Identifying African American single mothers experiences of their relationships with their adolescent sons resulted in findings that can be used to help single parents manage their situation, especially from an emotional perspective.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to identify the experiences of single African American mothers relationships with their adolescent sons. S. Snyder (2016) discussed various challenges single African American mothers face and the way it affects their ability to care for their children and help them become responsible and successful adults. Doody and Noonan (2013) explained that although the problem has always been an issue for parents, it has not been given proper attention. Findings from thisstudy may be used to inform the field of psychology of the experiences of single African American mothers relationships with their adolescent sons.
There are numerous ways to define the parent-child relationship. Some parents are successful in developing a close relationship with their children (Slonim, 2014). Parents may be able to discuss anything that directly affects the relationship and the family in general. In other cases, the relationship is strained, making it difficult for the two to have meaningful discussions and communicate about personal issues.
The communication between single mothers and their adolescent sons can be an area of concern, specifically as it relates to discussing sex; S. Snyder (2016) considered that although American society has made significant steps in fighting stereotypes and traditional concepts that made it taboo for mothers to talk about sex with their sons, it is still not easy for mothers to address sex-related problems with their sons.
M. Cooper and Norcross (2016) argued that it is often easier for a female child to open up about personal issues to her mother than for an adolescent son to do so. It is also less stressful for female parents to talk about sexual health and sexuality with their adolescent daughters, a very important topic for adolescents of either sex (A. Williams, Ryan, Davis-Kean, McLoyd, & Schulenberg, 2017). Single mothers realize the topic is necessary, but they may be reluctant to discuss it.
Close relationships that single mothers have with their adolescent daughters can offer ways for them to share pleasurable experiences, especially when addressing developmental challenges that the child is facing (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). The researchers suggested that the same is not true for single mothers parenting adolescent sons because find it challenging to discuss issues related to physical development. Therefore, these single mothers can receive helpful parenting information gathered from research on the experiences of single African American mothers relationships with their adolescent sons.
Significance of the Study
A discussion of specific factors that influence single African American mothers experiences of their relationships with adolescent sons may help to identify critical findings of parenting (A. Williams et al., 2017). Therefore, it was important to discuss the significance of this study to the wider field of the psychology community who have an interest in the topic and to those individuals who may want to apply the findings and recommendations made.
The findings may not only be beneficial to single African American mothers but to all parents who have or may one day have adolescent sons. Parents may gain a better understanding of how to develop positive relationships with their sons despite the challenges they encounter. The parents may learn to recognize what they have to avoid because of a possible negative impact on the relationship. One of myexpectations was that findings from herinvestigation could help enhance parenting skills, specifically when it comes to the issue of parents creating positive relationships with their children.
Creating a positive relationship can help to ensure parents can easily discuss challenges their children encounter, both at school and home. The schools may benefit ifa parent and a child create such a positive relationship (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). Ifparents support their children with the socioemotional issues the young people face, chances of such students excelling in school may improve. Study findings may also be used to support theories used to guide the study.
Data from this study may also help in determining the applicability of some of the theories developed over the recent past. Black psychology theory and systems theory have gained popularity among scholars conducting studies on parenting and the lifestyles of African Americans living in the United States (G. Williams & Smalls, 2015). Black psychology and systems theories were frameworks used to identify the experiences of single African American mothers relationships with their adolescent sons. I used a generic qualitative design to identify the experiences of single African American mothers. Themes that emerged from participant responses were the basis of the findings and results of the study.
Research Question
The research question was, How do single African American mothers experience their relationship with their adolescent sons?
Definition of Terms
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Adolescence. In this study, the term adolescence referred to a development stage from childhood to adulthood (Schneider & Coleman, 2018). It is a critical developmental stage when children develop self-identity asthey become adults. Adolescence can be understood as the period of life when an individual is between 10 and 19yearsold; however, this dissertation study focused on mid- to late-adolescence (approximately between the ages of 14 and 19) because there might be major differences between younger and older adolescents (Varner & Mandara, 2013).
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African American.An ethnic group in the United States with partial or total ancestry from Africa is referred to as African American (Baudin, Croix, & Gobbi, 2015). In this study, the term referred to the African American population in the United States.
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Communal.The term communal refers to a system that brings together members of a society in a shared responsibility (Chetty, Hendren, Kline, & Saez, 2014). It includes the spirit of collectivism in which members of the society feel they bear some responsibility of ensuring that everything happens as per expectations (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). Ireferred to communal as the feeling people have that they are obliged to help others in every possible way, especially single parents when parenting adolescents.
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Experience. In this study, the term experience referred to an encounter that left a lasting impression on a person (Zinn, Hondagneu-Sotelo, & Messner, 2016). I used this the termto refer to the encounters that single African American mothers have when parenting their adolescent sons.
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Parenting.The process of supporting and promoting the physical, social, intellectual, and emotional development of a person, from infancy to adulthood was described as parenting by Manning, Brown, and Stykes (2014). The study focus was not on the process of parenting itself, but the experiences that single African American mothers had when parenting their adolescent sons.
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Racism.The term racism referred to discrimination or prejudice directed against an individual or a group of people because of the misconception that their race is inferior (Donnelly et al., 2015). The problem of racial superiority is common in the United States and often has a serious impact on the affected group.
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Relationship.The emotional bond, a feeling of duty, and the obligations that mothers and sons experience toward each other was referred to as a relationship by several researchers (Elliott et al., 2013; Wilson, Henriksen, Bustamante, & Irby, 2016).
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Single African American mothers.I used the phrase single African Americanmotherwhen I was referring to women who are Black Americans, but have ancestors of African origin, have a son, and raise that son without the assistance of a partner, such as a sons father (Barajas, 2011; Choi & Jackson, 2011).
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Single mother. In this paper, single mother referred to a scenario where a mother must support and promote the physical, social, intellectual, and emotional development of a child from infancy to adulthood in the absence of the father (Spring, 2016).
Research Design
This study was designed to identify the experiences of single African American mothers. The most appropriate design for this study was to apply a qualitative research method. This designwas appropriate because it enabled me to obtain a detailed explanation of why certain events happened in a given manner. According to Percy, Kostere, and Kostere (2015), although quantitative research makes it possible to use mathematical tools to quantify a given issue under investigation, such researchmay be limited in offer explanations of why a phenomenon happened in a given manner. Qualitative research was appropriate for addressing the experiences of these women because in-depth personal information could be obtained from their perspective.
Aqualitative research design was considered appropriate for the study based on achieving the aim and objectives for this study. It was necessary to conduct research experiences of single African American mothers of their relationship with their sons. The chosen design as the most appropriate way to engage the parents and discuss the experiences they had with their sons (Percy et al., 2015). An in-depth analysis of their experiences would enable me to identify specific factors that defined the experience.
Percy et al. (2015) argued that this approach is appropriate when it is necessary to go beyond providing statistics. A generic qualitative research approach helped to facilitate an investigation of the given phenomenon and to describe how to address the undesirable impacts or characteristics of single parenthood (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). Qualitative data made it possible to identify these experiences from individual perspectives, based on various socioeconomic factors (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). The identified experiences became the themes related in the findings from the thematic analysis.
Thematic analysis is appropriate for a generic qualitative study. Data analysis included using coding to identify themes in the transcribed data (Percy et al., 2015). The approach was appropriate since I was investigating the experience of single AfricanAmerican mothers who parented adolescent sons. The data were collected from participants through interviews. When identifying single African American mothers relationships with their adolescent sons, it was necessary to allow each of the participants to describe the unique personal experience without limiting them to a structured format of answering the questions (Ehde, Dillworth, & Turner, 2014).
Assumptions and Limitations
The generic qualitative approach used to conduct this study included assumptions considered before the selection of the design. Identifying the limitations of this methodology, design, and the study was also important, since they had implications for a variety of factors related to the findings of the study. There were several assumptions and limitations made. According to Evans (2014), it was important to identify assumptions and limitations in the study to help those who may choose to use it to inform their policies.
Assumptions
Qualitative research uses a holistic approach to identify the experiences, behaviors, and emotions of an experience. In social sciences, it may not be possible to control various factors relevant to the study. Leman (2015) explained that social scientists could only make assumptions because of the inability to control the actions and decision of human beings. This dissertation study included ontological, epistemological, axiological, theoretical, and general assumptions.
One of the primary assumptions made in this study was that single African American mothers would have similar experiences of their relationships with their adolescent sons if they shared similar socioeconomic factors. I assumed that the participants would be open and honest as they shared their perceptions of single motherhood. An ontological assumption was that participants would provide accurate information during the semi-structured interviews regarding their experiences of the relationships with their adolescent sons, which may be different from the reality of another individual (Corbin & Strauss, 2015).
The level of diversity of this experience was beyond the scope of the study. As such, it was necessary to consider the ontological assumptions when conducting the research. According to Leman (2015), the experiences of single mothers relationships with adolescent sons varied and depended on many factors, such as the discipline level of the child, academic excellence, social behavior, the economic status of the family, among many other factors.
The study also required epistemological assumptions. In a qualitative study, researchers must bring their whole selves into the process of exploring a phenomenon to find the answers to the posed research questions (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). The use of semi-structured interviews consisted of interaction with participants; therefore, there was an epistemological assumption that my participants and I were dependent on one another for accurate data collection. Each interview was developed by the conversation and interaction throughout the interview.Therefore,data collection depended on my interviewing skills and interaction with the participants.
Axiological assumptions required the consideration of my values during the study. Corbin and Strauss (2008) opined that it was necessary to consider the personal values of the researcher to avoid undue influence during the study. I acknowledged my personal values through self-reflection and recognized biases that could have affected the findings; because I am a single African American mother of an adolescent son, I realized that differences might have existed between personal and participants experiences.
Therefore, I needed to develop strategies to put these personal biases aside. One of the most important strategies I employed was to select participants based strictly on the inclusion/exclusion criteria instead of personal preferences, as discussed in chapter 3. Another strategy was to base conclusion and recommendations on the findings from primary and secondary sources. Corbin and Strauss (2015) note that sometimes one may be tempted to base recommendations on personal feeling and experiences. I avoided such temptations and ensured that proposed policies and practices are based on information obtained from different books, journal articles, and primary data from the participants.
Some of the assumptions made in this study focused on certa
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