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Introduction
Background
Turnover is one of the central issues in human resource (HR) management due to its high cost for the organization (Lyons & Bandura, 2020). Scientific research demonstrates that there is a high correlation between job satisfaction and employee turnover, which implies that one of the central strategies for reducing employee turnover is by improving job satisfaction (Mashuri and Maharani, 2019; Sasso et al., 2019). Job satisfaction is known to be affected by numerous factors. First, job satisfaction is known to have a positive correlation with employee engagement (Jiang et al., 2019). If a company can satisfy all the levels of needs, including physiological needs, safety needs, belonginess and love needs, esteem needs, and self-actualisation needs (McLeod, 2007). Additionally, job satisfaction is known to be positive correlated with job-life balance, person-environment fit, and psychological capital (Chi et al., 2020; Ganji & Johnson, 2020).
Motivation is also crucial factor contributing to job satisfaction and employee retention. A study by Ali and Anwar (2021) studied the effect of motivation on job satisfaction on job satisfaction. The researchers viewed motivation as four constituencies, including reward, compensation, incentive, and recognition (Ali and Anwar, 2021). The results demonstrated that all four aspects of motivation had a positive impact on employee job satisfaction (Ali and Anwar, 2021). Paais and Pattiruhu (2020) studied the effect of motivation, leadership, and organizational culture on job satisfaction. The results demonstrated that motivation had a significant positive impact on job satisfaction (Paais and Pattiruhu, 2020). Thus, recent literature demonstrates that increasing employee motivation is crucial for improving job satisfaction.
Employee motivation also has a significant positive impact on job performance. According to van der Kolk et al. (2019), motivation increases the productivity and effectiveness of employees in the public sector. Similarly, Paais and Pattiruhu (2020) state that job performance benefits from motivation, as employees have more incentives to do their job better. Additionally, Lorincová et al. (2019) state that employee motivation can help the companies achieve sustainability. Therefore, improving employee satisfaction is a key objective of HR management.
There are numerous ways of improving motivation established in current research. Motivation can be improved by increasing the compensation of employees, as workers with higher salary tends to increase the employees willingness to work better not to be replaced (Ali and Anwar, 2021). Another possible way to improve motivation is through recognition, as rewarding high performers encourages the employees to improve their performers (Ali and Anwar, 2021). According to Gherman (2012), motivation can be increased by addressing the needs of employees on all levels of Maslows pyramid. In other words, employee motivation can be increased by improving employee engagement. However, despite a large body of knowledge concerning strategies for improving employee motivation, HR managers still find it challenging to keep employees motivated (Hanaysha & Majid, 2018). Thus, it is crucial to search for innovative ways to improve employee motivation.
Problem Statement
Office workers experience increased risk of physical and mental illness due to sedentary lifestyle. According to Ráthonyi et al. (2021), office employees experienced significant increase in sedentary behavior due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The limitations associated with the attempts of the government to decrease the speed of the virus spread, such as mobility restrictions, forced employees to decrease their physical activity and start working from home, which was associated with a significant rise in sedentary behavior of office employees (Ráthonyi et al., 2021).
Sedentary behavior is associated with severe health implications for office workers. Sedentary behavior increases all causes of mortality, including cardio-vascular diseases, hypertension, osteoporosis, and lipid disorders (Saunders et al., 2020). Additionally, physical inactivity leads to mental health problems, such as depression and anxiety, which decreases the productivity of employees (Saunders et al., 2020). Sedentary lifestyle is one of the leading causes of obesity and type 2 diabetes, which increase morbidity and mortality (Saunders et al., 2020). Thus, sedentary lifestyle is a significant bother in modern society.
Mental health has a significant impact on employee motivation. According to Kongcharoen et al. (2020), increased stress of employees may be associated with significant effect on employees motivation. Workers report to be less incentivized to perform well at their jobs if they feel stressed or anxious (Kongcharoen et al., 2020). As a result, it may be concluded that sedentary lifestyle has a negative impact on employee motivation.
Physical activity has an indirect positive impact on employees performance. In particular, physical activity is known to have a positive effect on well-being of employees (Cooper & Barton, 2016). In particular, physical activity improves physical health and emotional health of employees, which positively affects the productivity of the workforce (Cooper & Barton, 2016). Additionally, physical activity is known to have a positive effect on mental health of employees by reducing the chance of having depression or anxiety disorders (Battalio et al., 2020). Improved mental health, physical, and emotional health has a positive effect on employee performance, which implies that there is a positive indirect link between physical activity and employee productivity and effectiveness.
Since physical activity reduces sedentary lifestyle by definition, it may be concluded that physical activity increases motivation indirectly. However, the review of the current body of knowledge revealed that there is a lack of empirical studies that test the link between employee motivation and physical activity. In other words, the literature review revealed a problem of the lack of evidence concerning the link between physical activity and employee motivation. This paper attempts to address the identified gap by studying the relationship between physical activity and motivation of office workers.
Aims and Objectives
The purpose of this research paper is to identify the effect of physical activity on motivation of office workers in Germany. In particular, this research aims at testing the correlation between employee motivation and the level of physical activity of office employees in Germany. The knowledge about the correlation between physical activity and employee motivation is expected to help HR managers in Germany to design innovative strategies to improve the employee motivation. Hence, this research is expected to help HR managers to increase employee retention and decrease HR costs associated with employee turnover. The purpose will be achieved using quantitative methods.
Several objectives were identified to achieve the purpose of the study. These objectives are listed below.
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Conduct a literature review to identify the state of knowledge concerning the relationship between physical activity and employee motivation;
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Design a survey that can measure employee motivation and physical activity of office workers;
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Collect data from sufficient sample to draw conclusion about the population;
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Conduct statistical analysis to determine the relationship between the variables;
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Interpret the data in light of findings of previous research;
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Provide recommendations for HR managers to improve employee motivation.
Research Question and Hypotheses
Research questions are crucial for any study for a wide variety or reasons. Research questions define an investigation and set boundaries to avoid any unnecessary research (Saunders et al., 2019). Additionally, a well-stated research question provides boundaries for the investigation and serve as point of reference for future assessment (Saunders et al., 2019). This study was guided by one research question stated below.
RQ1: What is the relationship between physical activity and motivation of office workers in Germany?
This study will test the following hypotheses:
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H0: There is no correlation between physical activity and motivation of office workers in Germany after controlling for gender and age.
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HA: There is a positive correlation between physical activity and motivation of office workers in Germany after controlling for gender and age.
Structure of the Paper
This paper is divided into six sections. The first section provides an overall introduction to the topic by discussing the background of the study, introducing the problem, and providing research purpose, questions, and hypotheses. The second section provides a brief literature review on the topic to determine the state of knowledge concerning the area of interest. The third section, the methods of the study are discussed to help the reader understand how the research question was answered and allow easy replication of the study in the future. The fourth section describes the results of the quantitative analysis using tables and figures with narrative explanations. The fifth section discusses the results of the study and compares them to the findings of previous research. The finals section provides a brief summary of the main points of the study.
Literature Review
Employee Motivation
Employee Motivation: Definition and Theory
Employee motivation is concept of increased interest among scholars. While the meaning of the term of employee motivation may be understood intuitively, it is crucial to provide a clear definition for the notion for further analysis. There are several definitions that were given to employee motivation by scholars. Kreitner (1995) defined motivation as a psychological process that gives actions and behaviors a sense of purpose. Buford et al. (1994) provide an expanded definition by including the idea of need in the definition. In particular, Buford et al. (1994) defined motivation as inclination to act in a purposive manner to satisfy the unmet needs. Higgins (1994) defined motivation as an internal drive to satisfy the unmet needs. Lindner (1998) also stated that motivation may be defined as a will to achieve a purpose. Thus, employee motivation can be described as a internal process of an employee that urges to satisfy a specific need that provides a sense of purpose to actions and behaviors.
There is a wide variety of theories that explain motivation based on different aspects of the definition. One of the most widely used explanations of motivation is on the basis of needs. Maslows pyramid of needs is the central theory that helps to describe motivation. The pyramid demonstrates a hierarchy of needs every human has divided into five levels (Huitt, 2007). The first level of the pyramid includes physiological needs, such as food, water, comfort, and rest (McLeod, 2007). The second level includes the safety needs, which implies physical security from being harmed, the general feeling of safety from outside dangers (McLeod, 2007). The first to levels are also known as the basic needs of humans (Huitt, 2007). The third level in Maslows pyramid consists of belonginess and love needs, which include intimate relationships and friendship (McLeod, 2007). The fourth level of the pyramid includes esteem needs, which are the feeling of prestige and accomplishment (McLeod, 2007). The third and the fourth levels of the pyramid are collectively known as psychological needs (McLeod, 2007). The highest level of the pyramid consists of self-actualisation needs, which is activity ones full potential through creativity and responsibility (McLeod, 2007).
This pyramid was later improved to include more levels. In his late works, Maslow described eight levels of the pyramid (Huitt, 2007). The first four levels were the deficiency needs, which included physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, and esteem needs (Huitt, 2007). Within these four deficiency needs, a person cannot think of higher needs until the lower-level needs are fulfilled (McLeod, 2007). At the same time, Maslow described four growth needs, which included needs to know and understand, aesthetic needs, self-actualisation needs, and transcendence needs (McLeod, 2007). The highest level of self-transcendence is connecting to someone beyond the ego, or the need to help others achieve self-actualisation (Huitt, 2007).
According to Maslows hierarchy of needs, employee motivation is close to employee engagement, implying that an employee is engaged when motivated (Ramlall, 2004). Both employee motivation and engagement were found to have a positive effect on employee performance, workplace satisfaction, and retention rates (Ali and Anwar, 2021; Hanaysha & Majid, 2018; Mashuri and Maharani, 2019; Sasso et al., 2019; Paais and Pattiruhu, 2020). Apart from Maslows pyramid, there are other need theories that explain motivation, such as McClellands Need Theory (Ramlall, 2004). Equity Theory and Expectancy Theory ae non-need theories that can also explain motivation. However, this paper uses Maslows needs theory as the primary framework for explaining motivation.
Factors Contributing to Employee Motivation
There numerous factors that contribute to employee motivation that should be acknowledged. For instance, Ali and Anwar (2021) stated that there are four aspects of employee motivation, including reward, compensation, incentive, and recognition. Thus, employee motivation can be improved by manipulating any of these constituencies by increasing monetary compensation, non-monetary reward, and celebrating success of the employees (Alin and Anwar, 2021). Putra et al. (2020) also stated that compensation plays a crucial part in employee motivation alone with recognition and non-monetary incentives.
One of the most frequently used incentives to motivate employees is career development. Iis et al. (2022) studied the effect of career development and work environment on employee motivation and job performance. The results demonstrated that both career development and work environment had a direct and indirect effect on job performance (Iis et al., 2022). Employee motivation played a mediating role in the relationship between career development and job performance (Iis et al., 2022). The study by Haryono et al. (2020) also stated that employee training has a positive effect on employee motivation. Researchers explain that employee training increases the chances of workers to develop in their career, which positively affects motivation (Ozkeser, 2019). Thus, career development is a critical incentive that contributes to employee motivation.
Wuryani et al. (2021) state that there is a correlation between leadership styles and motivation. In particular, the study by Wuryani et al. (2021) demonstrated that there was a positive correlation between situational leadership style and employee motivation. Additionally, the study by Wuryani et al. (2021) revealed that leaders using flexible decision support systems can motivate the employees. Nguyen et al. (2020) studied the correlation between employee motivation and organizational commitment. The study revealed that the more committed the employees are, the more motivated they feel to achieve company goals (Nguyen et al., 2020). Thus, employee motivation can be improved by adapting the leadership style and improving organizational commitment.
Motivation is also affected by demographic variables. A study by Hitka et al. (2019) revealed that the factors that contribute to employee motivation differ depending on the region and age group of the employees. In other words, while the motivating factors remain the same across regions and age groups, the prioritization of these factors may depend on origin and age of the participants (Hitka et al., 2019). Additionally, employee motivation factors vary in time depending on external events. A study by Hitka et al. (2022) stated that factors contributing to employee motivation changed after the COVID-19 pandemic. In particular, Hitka et al. (2022) stated that employees became more motivated by stability and communication practices in the firm ins Slovak Republic. Thus, it is crucial to note that the factors contributing to employee motivation may differ depending on time and place along with the age of the participants.
Physical Activity
Definition of Physical Activity
World Health Organization (WHO, 2022) defines physical activity as bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure (para. 1). Thus, according to the definition, physical activity includes all movement of the body and only during the leisure time (WHO, 2022). Cho (2016) divided all physical activity into five categories, including were aerobic exercise and sports, flexing exercises, muscular exercises, arts and cultural activities, and sedentary activities. Physical activity can also differ in terms of intensity and recurrence (Cho, 2016). Adults are recommended to at least 30 minutes of at least moderate activity for at least three days a week (Cho, 2016). This study utilizes Chos (2016) view on physical activity, as it allows easy operationalization of the definition and reliable measurement of the variable.
Effects of Physical Activity
Physical activity is known to have a positive impact employee well-being, which includes physical, emotional, and mental health. WHO (2022) states that sedentary behavior is associated with increased all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, and cancer mortality, as well as incidence of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and type 2 diabetes (WHO, 2022). Additionally, insufficient physical activity leads to increased weight gain and reduced sleep quality and duration (WHO, 2022). Colenberg et al. (2021) state that there is a positive correlation between physical activity and employee well-being.
Physical activity improves emotional and mental health of the employees. In particular, reduced physical activity is known to contribute to risk of emotional distress, depression, and anxiety (Saunders et al., 2020). According to Faulkner et al. (2021), reduced physical activity made a significant contribution towards increased cases of mental and emotional disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic. Teychenne et al. (2020) stated that even low doses of physical activity can decrease the risk of mental health problems. According to Cooper and Barton (2016), physical activity is known to have a positive effect on well-being of employees. In particular, physical activity improves physical health and emotional health of employees, which positively affects the productivity of the workforce (Cooper & Barton, 2016). Additionally, physical activity is known to have a positive effect on mental health of employees by reducing the chance of having depression or anxiety disorders (Battalio et al., 2020). Thus, employers need to ensure that the office space promotes physical activity of employees and reduce sedentary activity.
Relationship between Physical Activity and Employee Motivation
Relationship between physical activity and employee motivation is under-researched, as the literature search did not generate a large number of studies that contribute to understanding of the correlation. Dishman et al. (2009) conducted a physical activity intervention with the aim to improve motivation of the employees. The experimental study revealed that Move-to-Improve intervention based on the promotion of physical activity among office workers had a positive effect on employee motivation (Dishman et al., 2009). Similarly, a recent preliminary experimental study by Signorini et al. (2022) revealed that a physical activity intervention had a positive impact on employee motivation and psychological well-being. This may imply that there is a positive correlation between physical activity and employee motivation.
Additionally, Kongcharoen et al. (2020) stated that employees with mental health problems report to be less motivated to perform their duties well. This implies that reduced physical activity can have a negative effect on employee motivation, as there is an established correlation between physical activity and employee well-being (Kongcharoen et al., 2020). Thus, it may be assumed that physical activity has an indirect effect on employee motivation through well-being as a mediating variable.
Summary and Literature Gap
The literature review demonstrated that there is emerging evidence concerning correlation between physical activity and employee motivation. In particular, research demonstrates that physical activity interventions can positively affect employee motivation (Dishman et al., 2009; Signorini et al., 2022). Additionally, the analysis of literature revealed that there may be an indirect link between physical activity and employee motivation through employee well-being as an intervening variable. However, recent research lacks empirical evidence of direct correlation between physical activity and employee motivation. This study aims to address the identified gap by conducting a cross-section study based on a sample of office workers in Germany.
Methods
Research Approach Selection
A quantitative approach is the most appropriate method for the present study. According to Abo El Nasr and Medhat (2017), the use of quantitative research is appropriate when a researcher needs to test a hypothesis. Quantitative research is usually based on the results of qualitative research and provides specific answers to narrow questions (Saunders et al., 2019). Quantitative research methods allow high breadth of the research, as numerous participants can be involved in a study (Copper & Schindler, 2014). However, questions that are answered by quantitative research are to be very specific. At the same time, quantitative research does not allow acquiring in-dept insights from the analysis, as the research design does not aim at explaining facts acquired from the analysis.
The alternatives to the selected approach were using a qualitative approach or a mixed-method approach. Qualitative research is based on in-depth unstructured data received from observation, interviews or focus groups (Saunders et al., 2019). Qualitative research usually aims at analyzing lived experiences of participants to acquire in-depth knowledge about a phenomenon (Saunders et al., 2019). A mixed-method-approach presupposes the use of both qualitative and quantitative research methods to compensate the limitations of using them separately (Copper & Schindler, 2014). However, the use of qualitative or mixed method approaches goes beyond the purpose of this study. Therefore, it was decided to conduct a quantitative correlational study to answer the research question by testing the hypothesis.
Population and Sampling
The population under analysis is the office workers in Germany. According to Statista (2023), the number of office workers in Germany was estimated at 10.3 million. The number of office workers in Germany increased between 2010 and 2023 from 8 million to 10.3 million. This figure was used to calculate the margin of error and the confidence level of the sample size.
It was decided to recruit 70 participants due to the researchers ability to secure the sample size. According to Survey Monkey (n.d.), the sample size can secure a margin of error of 10% and the confidence level of 90%. While such a margin of error and a confidence level are associated with a high degree of uncertainty, they are sufficient for a non-major research project.
Simple random sampling was used to secure the needed sample size. Simple random sampling gives all the representative of the population to receive an equal chance to participate in a study. Such an approach to recruitment is associated with a low level of selection bias, which is crucial for improving the reliability of results. Convenience sampling was considered as an alternative due to the researchers limited ability to secure the required sample size. However, it was decided to avoid using this sampling method, as selection bias was a significant concern due to the low sample size.
Variable and Instruments
This study aimed at studying the relationship between physical activity and motivation of office employees in Germany. This implies that the variables under analysis are physical activity and employee motivation. Physical activity was viewed as the independent variable, while motivation was viewed as the dependent variable. The hypothesis also mentioned three control variables, which included age and gender.
A questionnaire was created by the researcher to measure the variables based on Likert scale questions. For the demographic questions, the participants were asked to select the answer that best described them. For the dependent variable questions, the participants were asked to rate how the agreed to the provided statements on a scale from 1 to 5, where 5 stood for agree, 4 stood for somewhat agree, 3 stood for neither agree nor disagree, 2 stood for somewhat disagree, and 1 stood for disagree. The reliability of the instrument for measuring motivation was very high with a Cronbachs alpha of 0.939. For the independent variable, a five-item physical activity questionnaire was used provided by Cho (2016). The reliability of the instrument for measuring physical activity was also very high, with a Cronbachs alpha of 0.941. The independent and dependent variables were measured as a sum of scores for the questions. The description of the questionnaire is provided in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Questionnaire Description
Data Collection Procedure
The participants were randomly selected from LinkedIns search engine. The participants were contacted using the available contact information (direct messages, email, or WhatsApp) and offered to participate in the study. The initial letter included the purpose of the study and what was expected of the potential participants if they agreed to respond to the questionnaire. After receiving a preliminary agreement, the participants were sent links to the survey. The data was collected automatically using Survey Monkey.
All the collected information was stored on Survey Monkeys server until the completion of the survey. As soon as the required number of responses was acquired, the data collection procedure was stopped. All the data was downloaded to a laptop protected by a password. The collected information did not contain any personal data as an additional measure of protection. After the data was downloaded, it was cleaned and analyzed using the methods described below in this paper.
Data Analysis
The data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. Descriptive statistics was used to characterize the sample and assess the assumptions of multiple regression analysis. For inferential statistics, two regression models were assessed with and without the control variables. There are two primary methods used for correlation analysis of numeric data, which are Pearsons correlation analysis and linear regression analysis (McClaive et al., 2018). The primary benefit of Pearsons correlation analysis is its ease of interpretation. However, Pearsons correlation analysis is rarely used, as it does not allow to quantify the effect of several independent variables on one dependent variable (McClaive et al., 2018). Thus, it was decided to use regression analysis. The following two model were tested:
This study utilized a significance level of 0.1 for all statistical tests. The level of significance of 90% was selected due to the preliminary nature of the research.
Ethical Considerations
Data collection procedure was in accord with the requirements of the institutional ethics committee. First, all the participants were informed that there would be no negative consequences of denying the participation in the study. The instruction for the survey also stated that the participants could withdraw from the study by simply closing the browser window. No informed formal informed consent was signed by the participants, as the primary data collection method was an anonymous survey. Since the survey did not collect any sensitive or personal data, signing an informed consent form was not an essential requirement. However, all the participants were informed that all the collected data would be securely stored on a cloud server and deleted as soon as the purpose of the study is achieved.
Results
Sample Description
The final sample included 70 participants after clearing the data. A total of 97 links to the questionnaires were sent, which implies that the response rate was 72%. The final sample included 29 (41.4%) males and 41 (58.6%) females. The sample also included 8 participants aged between 18 and 24, 23 participants aged between 25 and 34, 21 participants aged between 35 and 44, 11 participants aged between 45 and 54, and 7 participants aged 55 or older. The age and gender distributions do not demonstrate any degree of selection bias by either age or gender. The age distribution of the sample is visualized in Figure 1 below.
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